# The law of nations The conventions that built international law: The Hague and Geneva rules, human rights covenants, the law of the sea, and the environmental accords. *This story part of: State, law, and coercion* ## 23 September 1122 — Concordat of Worms Agreement between Pope Callixtus II and Emperor Henry V ending the Investiture Controversy. It separated the spiritual and secular elements of appointing bishops, a landmark in church-state relations. ## 22 August 1864 — First Geneva Convention Convention for the amelioration of the condition of wounded soldiers in the field, inspired by Henry Dunant and the new Red Cross. It founded modern international humanitarian law. ## 17 May 1865 — International Telegraph Convention Convention among twenty states standardizing telegraph networks and tariffs and founding the International Telegraph Union, the oldest international organization still operating. It began formal international cooperation on technology. ## 20 May 1875 — Metre Convention Treaty among seventeen states establishing the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and uniform metric standards. It created the framework that still governs the world's measurement units. ## 9 September 1886 — Berne Convention Convention establishing mutual international protection of literary and artistic copyright. It remains the foundation of global copyright law. ## 29 July 1899 — Hague Convention of 1899 Conventions from the first Hague Peace Conference codifying the laws of war on land, creating the Permanent Court of Arbitration, and banning certain weapons. It was the first broad multilateral attempt to regulate warfare. ## 27 August 1928 — Kellogg-Briand Pact Multilateral treaty renouncing war as an instrument of national policy, eventually joined by most states. Though unable to prevent the Second World War, it underpinned later charges of waging aggressive war. ## 20 July 1936 — Montreux Convention Convention giving Turkey control of the Bosporus and Dardanelles and regulating passage of warships in and out of the Black Sea. Its rules still govern the straits today. ## 7 December 1944 — Chicago Convention Convention on international civil aviation establishing rules of airspace sovereignty and founding the International Civil Aviation Organization. It remains the constitution of world air travel. ## 26 June 1945 — United Nations Charter Founding treaty of the United Nations, signed by fifty nations, establishing the Security Council, General Assembly, and a general ban on aggressive war. It is the cornerstone of the postwar international order. ## 9 December 1948 — Genocide Convention Convention defining genocide as a crime under international law and obliging states to prevent and punish it, adopted in response to the Holocaust. It was the first human rights treaty of the United Nations era. *Source: Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide* ## 12 August 1949 — Geneva Conventions of 1949 Four conventions protecting wounded soldiers, shipwrecked sailors, prisoners of war, and civilians in wartime. Ratified by virtually every state, they are the core of international humanitarian law. ## 4 November 1950 — European Convention on Human Rights Council of Europe convention protecting fundamental rights and creating the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. It gives individuals a binding legal remedy against their own governments. ## 28 July 1951 — Refugee Convention Convention defining who is a refugee and the protections owed to them, including the principle of non-refoulement. With its 1967 Protocol it remains the foundation of international refugee law. ## 1 December 1959 — Antarctic Treaty System international treaties concerning Antarctica ## 18 April 1961 — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations Convention codifying diplomatic immunity and the inviolability of embassies. It governs everyday diplomacy between virtually all states. ## 27 January 1967 — Outer Space Treaty Treaty barring national appropriation of outer space and celestial bodies and banning nuclear weapons in orbit. It remains the basic law of space activity. ## 3 March 1973 — CITES Convention regulating international trade in endangered species of wild animals and plants through a permit system. It protects tens of thousands of species. > "Senator Ted Kennedy’s office released a paper not too long ago claiming that prior to compulsory education the state literacy rate was ninety-eight percent and that after it the figure never exceeded ninety-one percent, where it stands in 1990." > — Dumbing Us Down, p. 55-61 ## 1 August 1975 — Helsinki Accords Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, in which 35 states accepted postwar borders and committed to human rights principles. Dissidents across the Soviet bloc used its pledges against their governments. ## 1979 — Bonn Convention treaty ## 10 December 1982 — United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Convention defining territorial seas, exclusive economic zones, and rules for navigation, seabed resources, and marine disputes. It is often called the constitution for the oceans. ## 16 September 1987 — Montreal Protocol Protocol phasing out CFCs and other substances that deplete the ozone layer, ratified by every UN member state. It is widely considered the most successful environmental treaty ever. ## 11 December 1997 — Kyoto Protocol Protocol to the UN climate convention setting binding emission reduction targets for developed countries. It was the first treaty to mandate cuts in greenhouse gases. ## 17 July 1998 — Rome Statute Treaty establishing the International Criminal Court to prosecute genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. It created the first permanent international criminal tribunal. ## 22 May 2001 — Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants treaty ## 12 December 2015 — Paris Agreement Climate agreement under which nearly all nations pledged to hold global warming well below 2 degrees Celsius through nationally determined contributions. It is the central framework of global climate policy. ## 19 June 2023 — High Seas Treaty Agreement under the Law of the Sea convention on conserving marine biodiversity in waters beyond national jurisdiction, enabling high seas marine protected areas. It was adopted after nearly two decades of negotiation.