# Fascism: rise and fall From the Fasci di Combattimento to the ruins of 1945, and the embers after. *This story part of: State, law, and coercion* *The Norse and Germanic gods parallel this story* *The Roma: persecution and survival parallel this story* *The Ashkenazi Jews: from the Rhineland to the Pale parallel this story* *The Holy Roman Empire: neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire parallel this story* *Nazi ideology was not unique: race myth, empire, and extermination part of this story* *How the West supported the Nazis: finance, appeasement, and Cold War bargains parallel this story* ## 1908 — Sorel publishes Reflections on Violence Georges Sorel publishes Reflections on Violence, arguing that a unifying myth and heroic action can bind a movement together. Though Sorel came from the revolutionary left, later writers trace his idea of mobilizing myth as one of the intellectual currents that fed into fascism. ## 20 February 1909 — Marinetti's Futurist Manifesto Filippo Tommaso Marinetti publishes the Futurist Manifesto on the front page of Le Figaro, glorifying speed, machines, violence, and war as the world's only hygiene. Many Futurists later rallied to fascism, and historians often point to the movement as part of its cultural background. ## 23 March 1919 — Mussolini founds the Fasci di Combattimento Benito Mussolini gathers war veterans and nationalists in Piazza San Sepolcro to found the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento. The movement gives fascism its name and its first organized form. *Source: Benito Mussolini: Rise to Power* ## 12 September 1919 to 1920 — D'Annunzio seizes Fiume The poet Gabriele D'Annunzio leads war veterans to occupy the disputed city of Fiume and rules it for over a year. His theatrical politics of black shirts, balcony speeches, and the Roman salute supplied a template that Mussolini later borrowed. ## 24 February 1920 — Founding of the Nazi Party The German Workers' Party proclaims its 25-point program at the Hofbrauhaus and renames itself the National Socialist German Workers' Party. Hitler soon takes control of the small movement. *Source: Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Rise to Power, 1918-1933* ## 28 October 1922 — March on Rome Fascist squads converge on Rome and King Victor Emmanuel III appoints Mussolini prime minister rather than order the army to stop them. Fascism takes power in a major state for the first time. *Source: Benito Mussolini: Rise to Power* ## 8 November 1923 — Beer Hall Putsch Hitler and the Nazi Party attempt to seize power in Bavaria in imitation of the March on Rome, but police break up the coup. Hitler's trial and short imprisonment make him a national figure and convince him to pursue power through elections. *Source: Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Rise to Power, 1918-1933* ## 3 January 1925 — Mussolini proclaims dictatorship In a speech to parliament after the Matteotti murder crisis, Mussolini takes responsibility for fascist violence and announces he will rule by force. Italy becomes a one-party dictatorship over the following two years. *Source: Benito Mussolini: Rise to Power* ## 18 July 1925 — Publication of Mein Kampf Hitler publishes the first volume of Mein Kampf, written during his imprisonment after the Beer Hall Putsch. The book lays out his racial ideology, antisemitism, and plans for German expansion. *Source: Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Rise to Power, 1918-1933* ## 21 April 1927 — Italy adopts the Charter of Labour The Fascist Grand Council proclaims the Charter of Labour, setting out the doctrine of the corporate state in which state-run corporations were meant to organize employers and workers together. In practice the system subordinated labor to the regime and gave employers the upper hand, and critics saw the corporatist promise as largely propaganda. *Source: The Fascist Charter of Labor, April 21, 1927* ## 24 June 1927 — Codreanu founds the Legion of the Archangel Michael Corneliu Zelea Codreanu founds the Legion of the Archangel Michael, whose paramilitary wing becomes known as the Iron Guard. Blending Orthodox mysticism with violent antisemitism and ultranationalism, it grows into one of interwar Europe's largest fascist movements. *Source: Antisemitic Parties and Movements* ## 14 September 1930 — Nazi breakthrough in the 1930 Reichstag election Amid the Depression the Nazi Party jumps from 12 to 107 seats, becoming the second-largest party in the Reichstag. The vote turns Hitler's movement from a fringe group into a major force in German politics. *Source: Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Rise to Power, 1918-1933* ## 1 October 1932 — Mosley founds the British Union of Fascists Oswald Mosley, a former Labour minister, founds the British Union of Fascists, modeled on Mussolini's movement. Its blackshirt marches and antisemitism provoke street clashes, and the party is banned during the Second World War. *Source: British Union of Fascists* ## 1933 — Hitler appointed chancellor of Germany In January 1933, President von Hindenburg bowed to political pressure and appointed Adolf Hitler chancellor. Schacht had been a prominent supporter and fundraiser for the Nazi movement. > "Finally, in January 1933, the president bowed to necessity and appointed the “Bohemian corporal” as chancellor." > — Lords of Finance *Source: Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Rise to Power, 1918-1933* ## 27 February 1933 — Reichstag Fire and the emergency decree The Reichstag building burns and the Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe is arrested at the scene. The Nazis blame a communist plot and the next day issue the Reichstag Fire Decree suspending civil liberties, opening a wave of arrests. Historians still debate whether van der Lubbe acted alone or the fire served Nazi aims, but its use to crush opposition is clear. *Source: Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Rise to Power, 1918-1933* ## 19 March 1933 — Estado Novo constitution in Portugal A national plebiscite approves Salazar's corporatist constitution, founding the Estado Novo. The authoritarian regime, influenced by fascist corporatism, rules Portugal until 1974. ## 23 March 1933 — Enabling Act passed in Germany With communist deputies barred and SA men filling the hall, the Reichstag passes the Enabling Act, letting the cabinet make laws without parliament. The act gives Hitler dictatorial powers under a veneer of legality and marks the legal end of the Weimar Republic. *Source: Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Rise to Power, 1918-1933* ## 15 September 1935 — Nuremberg Laws enacted The Reichstag, convened at the Nuremberg party rally, strips Jews of German citizenship and bans marriage between Jews and other Germans. Nazi racial ideology becomes the law of the state. ## 17 July 1936 — Military uprising ignites the Spanish Civil War A group of generals launches a coup against the elected Republic, splitting Spain into war. Franco takes command of the Nationalist side, which absorbs the fascist Falange and receives troops and aircraft from Hitler and Mussolini. The war becomes a proving ground for the Axis powers. ## 1 November 1936 — Proclamation of the Rome-Berlin Axis Mussolini declares that the agreements with Nazi Germany form an axis around which European states can turn, giving the alliance its name. The bond deepens through the Pact of Steel in 1939 and later draws in Japan, forming the wartime Axis. ## 1 April 1939 — Franco's victory in the Spanish Civil War Francisco Franco declares victory over the Spanish Republic after three years of civil war fought with German and Italian support. His authoritarian regime rules Spain until his death in 1975. ## 15 October 1944 to 1945 — Arrow Cross seizes power in Hungary With German backing, Ferenc Szalasi's fascist Arrow Cross Party takes over Hungary after the regent tries to leave the war. Its brief rule unleashes terror in Budapest, murdering thousands of Jews and deporting many more during the Holocaust's final stage. ## c. May 1945 — Defeat of the Axis and the fall of fascism The Allied defeat of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy destroys fascism as a governing ideology and discredits it worldwide. The revealed crimes of the regimes make fascism a byword for political evil. *Source: Benito Mussolini: Rise to Power* ## 20 November 1945 to 1946 — Nuremberg trials of Nazi leaders An international military tribunal tries surviving Nazi leaders for crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. Twelve defendants are sentenced to death, and the trials establish that following orders is no defense and shape modern international law. *Source: International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg* ## 26 December 1946 — Founding of the Italian Social Movement Veterans of Mussolini's Social Republic found the Italian Social Movement, the main neo-fascist party of postwar Europe. Its successors later move into Italy's political mainstream. ## 22 June 1995 — Umberto Eco names the features of Ur-Fascism The novelist Umberto Eco publishes Ur-Fascism, listing recurring traits he argues underlie fascist movements even without a single doctrine. The essay feeds a long debate over how loosely the label fascism can be applied. Scholars remain divided, and many warn that stretching the term to brand present-day opponents drains it of meaning, so contemporary uses are best treated as contested.