# Israel: ancient roots to modern state From the ancient kingdoms and the long diaspora through Zionism, the Balfour Declaration, and the founding of the state, to the wars and the peace efforts. Contested framings presented neutrally. *This story part of: State, law, and coercion* ## c. 1050 BCE — The United Monarchy Biblical tradition describes a united kingdom of Israel under Saul, David and Solomon around the 11th and 10th centuries BCE. The historical scale of this kingdom is debated among archaeologists. ## c. 957 BCE — The First Temple in Jerusalem Tradition credits King Solomon with building the First Temple in Jerusalem as the central site of Israelite worship. It stood until the Babylonian destruction in 586 BCE. ## c. 930 BCE — Division into Israel and Judah After Solomon's death, tradition holds that the kingdom split into a northern kingdom of Israel and a southern kingdom of Judah. The two coexisted and often rivaled each other for about two centuries. ## 722 BCE — Assyrian Conquest of the Kingdom of Israel The Neo-Assyrian Empire captured Samaria and ended the northern kingdom of Israel around 722 BCE. Much of the population was deported, a source of the later legend of the ten lost tribes. ## 586 BCE — Babylonian Conquest of Judah The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II captured Jerusalem in 586 BCE, destroyed the First Temple and exiled much of Judah's elite. The event ended the independent kingdom of Judah. ## 586 BCE to 538 BCE — The Babylonian Exile After the fall of Jerusalem, a large part of Judah's population lived in exile in Babylon. The period shaped Jewish religious identity and the editing of scripture. ## 538 BCE to 516 BCE — The Persian Return and Second Temple After Cyrus the Great of Persia allowed exiles to return, Jews rebuilt the Temple in Jerusalem, completed around 516 BCE. This began the Second Temple period. ## 332 BCE — Alexander the Great Conquers the Levant Alexander the Great's conquest brought Judea under Hellenistic rule. Greek culture and later dynasties, the Ptolemies and Seleucids, governed the region. ## 167 BCE to 164 BCE — The Maccabean Revolt Jewish fighters led by the Maccabees rebelled against the Seleucid king Antiochus IV after he restricted Jewish practice. Their rededication of the Temple is commemorated as Hanukkah. ## c. 140 BCE — The Hasmonean Kingdom The Hasmonean dynasty established an independent Jewish state in Judea that lasted until Roman intervention. It expanded Judean territory across much of the region. ## 63 BCE — Roman Conquest of Judea The Roman general Pompey captured Jerusalem in 63 BCE and brought Judea under Roman influence. Local client rulers governed under Roman authority. ## c. 20 BCE — Herod the Great Expands the Temple Herod the Great, a Roman client king, launched a major expansion of the Second Temple and its complex in Jerusalem. The Western Wall is a remnant of that platform. ## 6 — Judea Becomes a Roman Province Rome converted Judea into a directly administered province in 6 CE, governed by prefects and procurators. Tension between Roman rule and Jewish religious life grew over the following decades. ## 66 to 73 — First Jewish-Roman War A Jewish revolt against Roman rule ends with the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE. The war scatters the Jewish population and reshapes Judaism. ## August 70 — Destruction of the Second Temple Roman forces under Titus captured Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple in 70 CE. The date is mourned in Judaism as Tisha B'Av and marked a turning point toward rabbinic Judaism. ## c. 73 — Fall of Masada According to the historian Josephus, the last Jewish rebels at the desert fortress of Masada died as Roman forces closed in around 73 or 74 CE. The site later became a national symbol in Israel. ## 132 to 136 — Bar Kokhba Revolt Simon bar Kokhba leads a final Jewish revolt against Rome that is crushed with enormous loss of life. Rome bans Jews from Jerusalem and renames the province Syria Palaestina. ## 135 — Judea Renamed Syria Palaestina After the Bar Kokhba revolt, the emperor Hadrian barred Jews from Jerusalem and renamed the province Syria Palaestina. The period marks the deepening of the Jewish diaspora. ## c. 500 — Compilation of the Babylonian Talmud Jewish scholars in Babylon compiled the Babylonian Talmud around 500 CE, a central text of rabbinic law and tradition. Babylon remained a major center of Jewish learning for centuries. ## c. 900 to c. 1100 — Golden Age of Jews in Muslim Spain Under Muslim rule in Iberia, Jewish communities took part in a flourishing of philosophy, poetry and science, often called a golden age. Figures such as Maimonides emerged from this Sephardic world. ## 1096 — Rhineland Massacres of the First Crusade As the First Crusade set out, crusader bands attacked Jewish communities in the Rhineland and killed thousands. The massacres marked a turning point for Jewish life in medieval Europe. ## 1290 — Expulsion of the Jews from England The Jews of England were finally expelled in 1290. Their property passed to others, including a lending firm from Cahors. > "who received the property of the English Jews when the latter were finally expelled in 1290." > — Debt: The First 5,000 Years ## July 1290 — Expulsion of the Jews from England King Edward I expelled the Jewish community from England in 1290. Jews were not formally readmitted until the 1650s. ## 1348 to 1351 — The Black Death Persecutions During the Black Death, Jews were falsely blamed for spreading the plague and many communities were massacred across Europe. Thousands were killed and many fled eastward. ## 31 March 1492 — The Alhambra Decree The Catholic Monarchs of Spain ordered the expulsion of Jews who would not convert to Christianity in 1492. Tens of thousands left, spreading the Sephardic diaspora across the Mediterranean. ## 1497 — Expulsion of the Jews from Portugal Portugal ordered its Jews to convert or leave in 1496 and 1497, ending one of the last open Jewish communities in Western Europe. Many became forced converts known as New Christians. ## 1516 — Establishment of the Venetian Ghetto Venice confined its Jewish residents to a walled quarter in 1516, giving the word ghetto to later languages. Similar enclosures spread across parts of Europe. ## 1648 to 1657 — The Khmelnytsky Massacres During a Cossack uprising against Polish rule, tens of thousands of Jews in present-day Ukraine were killed. The massacres were among the worst for European Jewry before the 20th century. ## 1656 — Readmission of Jews to England Under Oliver Cromwell, Jews were informally allowed to return to England after nearly four centuries. It opened a new Anglo-Jewish community. ## 1791 — Creation of the Pale of Settlement The Russian Empire restricted most Jews to a western border region known as the Pale of Settlement. Millions lived there under legal and economic limits until the early 20th century. ## 1791 — Jewish Emancipation in France The French Revolution granted Jews full citizenship in 1791, the first such emancipation in Europe. It began a wider movement for Jewish civil rights across the continent. ## 1840 — The Damascus Affair A blood libel accusation against Jews in Damascus in 1840 drew international attention and intervention. It spurred early Jewish political organizing in Western Europe. ## 1862 — Publication of Rome and Jerusalem Moses Hess published Rome and Jerusalem in 1862, an early call for a Jewish national home. It anticipated later political Zionism. ## 1881 — Anti-Jewish Pogroms in the Russian Empire A wave of violent pogroms swept the Russian Empire after 1881, killing and displacing many Jews. The violence pushed mass emigration to the West and the first Zionist settlement. ## 1881 to 1903 — The First Aliyah Between 1881 and 1903 waves of mostly Eastern European Jews immigrated to Ottoman Palestine and founded farming settlements. This first aliyah laid groundwork for later Zionist immigration. ## 1894 to 1906 — The Dreyfus Affair The wrongful conviction of the Jewish French officer Alfred Dreyfus for treason in 1894 exposed deep antisemitism in France. Theodor Herzl, who covered the affair, cited it as a spur to political Zionism. ## 1894 — The Dreyfus affair In 1894 Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery officer, was wrongly convicted of treason on fabricated evidence. The affair split France between its old royalist Catholic order and a modernizing, liberal one. > "In 1894 a young Jewish artillery officer, Captain Alfred Dreyfus, was wrongly convicted of treason when French intelligence officials conspired to fabricate evidence that he had worked as a spy for Germany." > — Lords of Finance ## February 1896 — Herzl Publishes Der Judenstaat Theodor Herzl published Der Judenstaat, meaning The Jewish State, in 1896, arguing for a sovereign Jewish homeland. The pamphlet became a founding text of political Zionism. ## 29 August 1897 — First Zionist Congress Theodor Herzl convenes the First Zionist Congress, which founds the Zionist Organization and calls for a Jewish home in Palestine. Political Zionism becomes an organized movement. ## 1901 — Founding of the Jewish National Fund The Zionist movement created the Jewish National Fund in 1901 to buy and develop land in Palestine for Jewish settlement. It became a central institution of the movement. ## 1903 — The Uganda Scheme In 1903 Britain offered the Zionist movement territory in East Africa as a possible Jewish homeland. The proposal was debated and ultimately rejected in favor of Palestine. ## 1904 to 1914 — The Second Aliyah A second wave of Jewish immigration, largely from the Russian Empire, arrived between 1904 and 1914. Its labor-oriented pioneers founded institutions that shaped later Israeli society. ## April 1909 — Founding of Tel Aviv Jewish residents founded Tel Aviv as a new town near Jaffa in 1909. It grew into the first modern Hebrew-speaking city. ## 1910 — Founding of Degania, the First Kibbutz Pioneers established Degania in 1910, the first kibbutz, a collective farming community. The model became central to Zionist settlement. ## 2 November 1917 — The Balfour Declaration Britain declared its support for a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. The pledge set in motion a conflict over the land that endures to this day. ## July 1922 to 1948 — The British Mandate for Palestine The League of Nations approved a British mandate over Palestine in 1922, which took effect in 1923. British rule lasted until 1948 amid rising tension between Jewish and Arab populations. ## August 1929 — The 1929 Palestine Riots Disputes over the Western Wall in 1929 sparked violence in which Arabs killed Jews in Hebron and Safed, and British forces killed Arab rioters. The events deepened the communal conflict. ## 1933 to 1939 — The Fifth Aliyah Rising Nazi persecution drove a large wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine in the 1930s. It sharply increased the Jewish population and Arab opposition to it. ## 1936 to 1939 — The 1936-39 Arab Revolt Palestinian Arabs staged a widespread revolt against British rule and Jewish immigration from 1936 to 1939. Britain suppressed it and later curbed Jewish immigration. ## July 1937 — The Peel Commission Partition Proposal A British commission in 1937 proposed partitioning Palestine into Jewish and Arab states. Zionist leaders were divided and Arab leaders rejected it, and the plan was shelved. ## May 1939 — The 1939 White Paper Britain's 1939 White Paper sharply limited Jewish immigration and land purchase in Palestine. It angered the Zionist movement, especially as Jews sought refuge from Europe. ## 1941 to 1945 — The Holocaust Nazi Germany and its collaborators murdered about six million European Jews during the Second World War. The genocide became a central argument for Jewish statehood. > "control techniques, had to do principally with the establishment and maintainence of group attention" > — Life in Classrooms ## 22 July 1946 — King David Hotel bombing The Zionist paramilitary group Irgun bombed the King David Hotel, which housed the British Mandate administration, killing 91 people. ## 29 November 1947 — The UN Partition Plan The UN General Assembly voted in 1947 to partition Palestine into Jewish and Arab states with an international zone for Jerusalem. Zionist leaders accepted the plan while Arab leaders rejected it. ## 1948 to 1949 — The Nakba and Palestinian Exodus During the 1948 war more than 700,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes, an event Palestinians call the Nakba, meaning catastrophe. Israeli and Palestinian accounts differ over how much was flight and how much was expulsion. ## 14 May 1948 — Founding of the State of Israel David Ben-Gurion declared the establishment of the State of Israel on 14 May 1948 as British rule ended. Neighboring Arab states rejected the move and war followed. ## 15 May 1948 to 20 July 1949 — 1948 Arab-Israeli War Neighboring Arab states attack the newly declared State of Israel, which survives and expands its territory. Hundreds of thousands of Palestinians flee or are expelled, creating a lasting refugee crisis. ## July 1950 — The Law of Return Israel's 1950 Law of Return granted every Jew the right to immigrate and gain citizenship. It became a defining feature of the new state. ## 29 October 1956 to 7 November 1956 — Suez Crisis Israel, Britain, and France invade Egypt after Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal, but American and Soviet pressure forces withdrawal. The fiasco marks the end of Britain and France as independent great powers. ## April 1961 — The Eichmann Trial Israel tried the Nazi organizer Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem in 1961 after capturing him in Argentina. The televised trial brought Holocaust testimony to a global audience. ## June 1967 — Start of the Occupation of the Territories After the 1967 war Israel took military control of the West Bank, Gaza, East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights. Israel calls the West Bank disputed, while the UN and much of the world call it occupied territory. ## 5 June 1967 to 10 June 1967 — Six-Day War Israel preemptively destroys the Egyptian air force and defeats Egypt, Jordan, and Syria in six days. It captures Sinai, Gaza, the West Bank, East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights, territories at the center of the conflict ever since. > "we have found in one study of elementary classrooms that the teacher engages in as many as 1000 interpersonal interchanges each day." > — Life in Classrooms ## 6 October 1973 to 25 October 1973 — Yom Kippur War Egypt and Syria launch a surprise attack on Israel on Yom Kippur and make early gains before Israeli counterattacks. The war triggers the Arab oil embargo and opens the path to Egyptian-Israeli peace. ## 17 September 1978 — Camp David Accords Framework agreements between Egypt and Israel brokered by President Carter after thirteen days of secret talks. They led to the first peace treaty between Israel and an Arab state. > "the 1978 Camp David agreement between Egypt and Israel" > — The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers ## 26 March 1979 — Egypt-Israel peace treaty First peace treaty between Israel and an Arab state, returning the Sinai to Egypt and normalizing relations. Egypt was suspended from the Arab League and President Sadat was later assassinated. ## June 1982 — The First Lebanon War Israel invaded Lebanon in 1982 to drive out the Palestine Liberation Organization. The war led to a long Israeli presence in southern Lebanon and heavy Lebanese casualties. ## September 1982 — The Sabra and Shatila Massacre In 1982 a Lebanese Christian militia allied with Israel killed hundreds to thousands of Palestinians in the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps. An Israeli inquiry found Israel indirectly responsible for failing to prevent it. ## December 1987 — Founding of Hamas The Islamist movement Hamas was founded in Gaza in 1987 during the First Intifada. It rejected recognition of Israel and later became a major armed and political force. ## December 1987 to 1993 — The First Intifada A Palestinian uprising against Israeli rule began in 1987, marked by protests, strikes and stone-throwing met with military force. It reshaped the conflict and helped lead to peace talks. > "Copyright © 2005 by John Gatto. All rights reserved. Original edition © 1992." > — Dumbing Us Down, p. 2-8 > "When I won the first of my Teacher of the Year awards in 1990, I intended to do nothing at the ceremony except to thank the presenter and to wave at my daugh- ter in the audience" > — Dumbing Us Down, p. 128-134 ## October 1991 — The Madrid Conference The 1991 Madrid Conference brought Israel and Arab delegations, including Palestinians, to direct talks for the first time. It opened the path to the Oslo process. ## 13 September 1993 — Oslo I Accord Declaration of Principles between Israel and the PLO, negotiated secretly in Oslo, establishing mutual recognition and Palestinian interim self-government. It began the Oslo peace process. ## 26 October 1994 — Israel-Jordan peace treaty Treaty ending the state of war between Israel and Jordan, fixing their border and normalizing relations. Jordan became the second Arab state to make peace with Israel. ## 28 September 1995 — Oslo II Accord The 1995 Oslo II agreement divided the West Bank into areas of Palestinian and Israeli control and expanded Palestinian self-government. It was the fullest stage of the Oslo process. ## 4 November 1995 — Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin An Israeli religious nationalist opposed to the Oslo Accords assassinated Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin in 1995. His death was a major blow to the peace process. ## May 2000 — Israeli Withdrawal from South Lebanon Israel withdrew its forces from a buffer zone in southern Lebanon in 2000 after 18 years. Hezbollah claimed the withdrawal as a victory. ## July 2000 — The Camp David Summit US-hosted talks in 2000 between Israel and the Palestinians failed to reach a final agreement. Each side blamed the other for the collapse. ## 28 September 2000 to 8 February 2005 — Second Intifada A Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation turns into five years of suicide bombings and Israeli military operations. Around 1,000 Israelis and 3,000 Palestinians die, and the peace process collapses. ## August 2005 — The Gaza Disengagement In 2005 Israel removed its settlers and soldiers from the Gaza Strip and parts of the northern West Bank. Supporters called it a step toward peace, while critics said it left Gaza's status unresolved. ## 12 July 2006 to 14 August 2006 — 2006 Lebanon War Israel and Hezbollah fight a 34-day war after a cross-border Hezbollah raid. The war devastates southern Lebanon without decisively weakening Hezbollah. ## June 2007 — Hamas Takes Control of Gaza After winning elections and then fighting the rival Fatah faction, Hamas took full control of the Gaza Strip in 2007. Israel and Egypt imposed a blockade that has continued since. ## 27 December 2008 to 2009 — The Gaza War of 2008-2009 Israel launched a major offensive in Gaza in late 2008, called Operation Cast Lead, after rocket fire. About 1,400 Palestinians and 13 Israelis were killed in three weeks. ## November 2012 — Operation Pillar of Defense An eight-day Israeli operation in Gaza in 2012 followed rocket fire and the killing of a Hamas commander. A ceasefire ended the fighting. ## July 2014 to 2014 — The 2014 Gaza War A seven-week war in Gaza in 2014, called Operation Protective Edge, killed more than 2,000 Palestinians and about 70 Israelis. Israel cited rocket fire and cross-border tunnels as reasons. ## 15 September 2020 — Abraham Accords Agreements normalizing relations between Israel and the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain, later joined by Morocco and Sudan. They were the first Arab-Israeli normalizations in a quarter century. ## 7 October 2023 — October 7 attacks on Israel Hamas-led fighters broke through the Gaza border and attacked Israeli communities, military posts and a music festival, killing about 1,200 people and taking roughly 250 hostages. The attack triggered the war in Gaza. ## 7 October 2023 — The Gaza War of 2023 Israel launched a large-scale air and ground campaign in Gaza after the 7 October 2023 attack. The war caused tens of thousands of Palestinian deaths and a severe humanitarian crisis, with casualty figures and framings disputed by the parties.