# Empires and kingdoms of history The great empires and kingdoms across the world and time: their rise, their reach, and their place in the human story, from Akkad and Egypt to the Mongols, the Mughals, and the modern powers. *This story part of: State, law, and coercion* ## c. 3100 BCE — Unification of Egypt under Narmer Narmer, also identified with Menes, is credited with unifying Upper and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom. This event marks the start of the First Dynasty and the pharaonic state. ## c. 2686 BCE — Rise of the Old Kingdom of Egypt The Old Kingdom began with the Third Dynasty and centralized royal power at Memphis. It is known as the age of pyramid building, including the Great Pyramid of Giza. ## c. 2334 BCE — Founding of the Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad conquered the Sumerian city-states and built one of the earliest known empires in Mesopotamia. It united much of the region under a single ruler for the first time. ## c. 2055 BCE — Rise of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt Mentuhotep II reunified Egypt after the First Intermediate Period, founding the Middle Kingdom. The era saw expansion into Nubia and a flourishing of literature and art. ## c. 1650 BCE — Rise of the Hittite Empire Hattusili I consolidated the Hittite state in central Anatolia with its capital at Hattusa. The Hittites became a major power rivaling Egypt and Babylon. ## c. 1550 BCE — Rise of the New Kingdom of Egypt Ahmose I expelled the Hyksos and founded the Eighteenth Dynasty, beginning Egypt's imperial age. The New Kingdom extended Egyptian power into the Levant and deep into Nubia. ## c. 1200 BCE — Rise of the Olmec Civilization The Olmec developed the first major civilization of Mesoamerica along the Gulf coast. They are known for colossal stone heads and early religious traditions. ## c. 1070 BCE — Rise of the Kingdom of Kush The Kingdom of Kush emerged in Nubia after Egyptian withdrawal from the region. It later conquered Egypt and ruled as the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. ## c. 911 BCE — Rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire Assyria began a period of expansion that built the largest empire the Near East had yet seen. It became known for its powerful army and administrative organization. ## c. 660 BCE — Traditional Founding of the Japanese Imperial Line Japanese tradition dates the accession of the legendary first emperor Jimmu to this year. The imperial line is regarded as the oldest continuous hereditary monarchy. ## 626 BCE — Founding of the Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar revolted against Assyrian rule and established an independent Babylonian state. Under his son Nebuchadnezzar II the empire dominated Mesopotamia and the Levant. ## c. 550 BCE — Founding of the Achaemenid Persian Empire Cyrus the Great overthrew the Median rulers and united the Persian lands into a vast empire. At its height it stretched from the Indus Valley to the Aegean Sea. ## c. 509 BCE — Founding of the Roman Republic The Romans overthrew their last king and established a republic governed by elected magistrates and a senate. The republican system lasted nearly five centuries. ## c. 500 BCE — Rise of Monte Albán The Zapotec built the hilltop city of Monte Albán in the Oaxaca Valley. It became one of the earliest urban centers in the Americas. ## 336 BCE — Founding of the Macedonian Empire of Alexander Alexander the Great inherited the throne of Macedon and launched a conquest of the Persian Empire. Within a decade he built an empire reaching from Greece to India. ## c. 321 BCE — Founding of the Maurya Empire Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda dynasty and unified most of the Indian subcontinent. The Maurya state became the first empire to control nearly all of India. ## c. 312 BCE — Founding of the Seleucid Empire Seleucus I Nicator secured Babylon and the eastern provinces after Alexander's death. His empire ruled a vast stretch of the Near East and Central Asia. ## 305 BCE — Founding of the Ptolemaic Kingdom Ptolemy I Soter took the title of king and established a Greek dynasty ruling Egypt. Alexandria became a leading center of learning and commerce. ## c. 268 BCE — Reign of Ashoka the Great Ashoka expanded the Maurya Empire to its greatest extent and later promoted Buddhism across Asia. His edicts on pillars and rocks spread ideas of moral governance. ## c. 247 BCE — Founding of the Parthian Empire Arsaces I led a revolt that established Parthian rule over Iran and Mesopotamia. The Parthians became Rome's main rival in the east for centuries. ## c. 209 BCE — Formation of the Xiongnu Confederation Modu Chanyu united the nomadic tribes of the steppe into a powerful confederation. The Xiongnu became a persistent rival to Han China along its northern frontier. ## c. 204 BCE — Founding of Nam Viet Triệu Đà established the kingdom of Nam Viet in the region of southern China and northern Vietnam. It is regarded in Vietnamese tradition as an early native state. ## 202 BCE — Founding of the Han dynasty Liu Bang defeated his rivals and founded the Han dynasty in 202 BCE, ruling from Chang'an. The Han became a defining era of Chinese civilization, and Chinese people still call themselves the Han. ## c. 100 BCE — Founding of Teotihuacan The city of Teotihuacan was established in the Valley of Mexico. It grew into one of the largest cities in the ancient world with its great pyramids. ## c. 57 BCE — Founding of Silla Silla was founded in the southeast of the Korean peninsula as one of the Three Kingdoms. It later unified much of Korea under its rule. ## c. 37 BCE — Founding of Goguryeo Goguryeo arose in the north of the Korean peninsula and Manchuria. It grew into a powerful kingdom that resisted Chinese expansion. ## 27 BCE — Founding of the Roman Empire Augustus became the first Roman emperor after the end of the civil wars. His reign began a long period of imperial rule over the Mediterranean world. ## c. 18 BCE — Founding of Baekje Baekje was founded in the southwest of the Korean peninsula as one of the Three Kingdoms. It became a center of maritime trade and cultural exchange with Japan. ## c. 30 — Rise of the Kushan Empire Kujula Kadphises united the Yuezhi tribes and founded the Kushan Empire across Central and South Asia. The Kushans linked trade routes between China, India, and Rome. ## c. 100 — Rise of the Kingdom of Aksum Aksum rose as a trading power in the Horn of Africa linking Africa, Arabia, and the Mediterranean. It minted its own coins and later adopted Christianity. ## 224 — Founding of the Sasanian Empire Ardashir I defeated the last Parthian king and founded the Sasanian dynasty. The empire revived Persian traditions and became a major power for four centuries. ## c. 250 — Rise of the Maya City-States The Classic Maya period saw the flourishing of independent city-states across Mesoamerica. They advanced writing, astronomy, and monumental architecture. ## c. 300 — Rise of Tiwanaku Tiwanaku grew into a major Andean state near Lake Titicaca. It influenced a wide region through its religion, architecture, and agriculture. ## c. 300 — Rise of the Ghana Empire The Ghana Empire arose in the western Sahel and grew wealthy from the gold and salt trade. It was the first of the great West African trading empires. ## c. 320 — Founding of the Gupta Empire Chandragupta I founded the Gupta dynasty in northern India. The Gupta era is often called a golden age of Indian science, mathematics, and art. ## c. 330 — Founding of the Byzantine Empire Constantine the Great dedicated Constantinople as the new capital of the Roman East. The eastern empire endured for over a thousand years after Rome fell. ## 618 — Founding of the Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty was founded in 618 CE after the Sui collapsed. It became one of the most powerful and cosmopolitan eras in Chinese history. ## c. 618 — Founding of the Tibetan Empire Songtsen Gampo united the Tibetan Plateau into a single empire. Tibet became a major power in Central Asia and adopted Buddhism during his reign. ## 632 — Founding of the Rashidun Caliphate After the death of Muhammad, the first caliphs led a rapid expansion of the early Islamic state. Within decades it conquered Persia and much of the Byzantine East. ## c. 650 — Rise of the Srivijaya Empire Srivijaya emerged as a maritime power controlling the straits of Southeast Asia. It dominated trade between India and China and spread Buddhism across the region. ## 661 — Founding of the Umayyad Caliphate Muawiya I established the Umayyad dynasty with its capital at Damascus. The caliphate grew into one of the largest empires in history, reaching Spain and Central Asia. ## 668 — Unification of Korea under Silla Silla defeated Goguryeo and Baekje to unify most of the Korean peninsula. The Unified Silla period brought a flowering of Buddhist art and culture. ## c. 700 — Founding of the Kanem Empire The Kanem Empire formed around Lake Chad and controlled key trans-Saharan trade routes. It later merged with Bornu to form a long-lasting state. ## 750 — Founding of the Abbasid Caliphate The Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads and moved the center of the Islamic world to Baghdad. Their early rule is associated with a flourishing of science and scholarship. ## 800 — Founding of the Carolingian Empire Charlemagne was crowned emperor by the pope, uniting much of western and central Europe. His empire revived learning and administration across the former Roman lands. ## 802 — Founding of the Khmer Empire Jayavarman II declared independence and founded the Khmer Empire in mainland Southeast Asia. The empire built the vast temple complex of Angkor. ## c. 900 — Rise of the Toltec at Tula The Toltec built their capital at Tula in central Mexico. Later Mesoamerican peoples, including the Aztecs, revered them as a model civilization. ## 909 — Founding of the Fatimid Caliphate The Fatimids established a Shia caliphate in North Africa and later founded Cairo. At its peak it ruled from the Maghreb across Egypt to the Levant. ## 960 — Founding of the Song dynasty General Zhao Kuangyin founded the Song dynasty in 960 CE and reunified most of China. The Song brought economic growth, urbanization, and a flowering of science and culture. ## 962 — Founding of the Holy Roman Empire Otto I was crowned emperor, linking the German kingship to the imperial title. The Holy Roman Empire remained a central institution in European politics for centuries. ## 1009 — Founding of the Ly Dynasty Ly Thai To founded the Ly dynasty and moved the capital to Thang Long, now Hanoi. The dynasty established a lasting Vietnamese state known as Dai Viet. ## c. 1037 — Founding of the Seljuk Empire The Seljuk Turks under Tughril established a large empire across Persia and the Near East. They became protectors of the Abbasid caliph and pushed into Anatolia. ## 1044 — Rise of the Pagan Empire King Anawrahta unified the Irrawaddy valley and founded the Pagan Empire. It was the first Burmese state to unite the region and spread Theravada Buddhism. ## c. 1050 — Rise of Cahokia Cahokia grew into the largest city of the Mississippian culture near the Mississippi River. Its great earthen mounds made it the largest pre-Columbian site north of Mexico. ## c. 1100 — Rise of Great Zimbabwe The stone city of Great Zimbabwe became the center of a powerful southern African kingdom. It thrived on cattle herding and trade in gold and ivory. ## c. 1180 — Founding of the Kingdom of Benin The Kingdom of Benin arose in West Africa and developed a strong centralized monarchy. It became renowned for its bronze and ivory artwork. ## 1206 — Founding of the Delhi Sultanate Qutb al-Din Aibak established Muslim rule over northern India from Delhi. The sultanate reshaped the politics and culture of the subcontinent. ## 1206 — Founding of the Mongol Empire Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes and was proclaimed ruler of all the steppe peoples. The Mongols went on to build the largest contiguous land empire in history. ## c. 1235 — Founding of the Mali Empire Sundiata Keita defeated his rivals and founded the Mali Empire in West Africa. It controlled the trans-Saharan gold trade and became famously wealthy. ## c. 1238 — Founding of the Sukhothai Kingdom The Sukhothai Kingdom is founded, traditionally regarded as the first Thai state; Thailand is the only Southeast Asian country never colonized. ## c. 1270 — Founding of the Ethiopian Empire Yekuno Amlak establishes the Solomonic dynasty, founding the Ethiopian Empire that endured until 1974; Ethiopia was never colonized. ## 1293 — Founding of the Majapahit Empire Raden Wijaya founded Majapahit on the island of Java after repelling a Mongol invasion. It became the most powerful maritime empire of the Indonesian archipelago. ## c. 1299 — Founding of the Ottoman Empire Osman I founded a small state in Anatolia that grew into the Ottoman Empire. Over centuries it came to rule southeastern Europe, the Near East, and North Africa. ## c. 1300 — Rise of the Oyo Empire The Yoruba state of Oyo grew into a major empire in West Africa. Its cavalry and trade networks gave it dominance over neighboring peoples. ## c. 1324 — Pilgrimage of Mansa Musa Mansa Musa made a celebrated pilgrimage to Mecca, displaying the vast wealth of Mali. His reign marked the empire's height and drew wide attention to West Africa. ## c. 1325 — Founding of Tenochtitlan The Mexica founded their capital Tenochtitlan on an island in Lake Texcoco. The city became the heart of the Aztec world and one of the largest cities of its era. ## 1351 — Founding of the Ayutthaya Kingdom King Uthong founded Ayutthaya, which became the dominant Thai power for four centuries. It grew into a wealthy center of trade and diplomacy. ## 1368 — Founding of the Ming dynasty The rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang drove out the Mongols and founded the Ming dynasty in 1368. Ruling as the Hongwu Emperor, he restored native Chinese rule and rebuilt central government. > "with a population of more than 60 million in 1 368" > — The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution, p. 310-313 ## c. 1390 — Founding of the Kingdom of Kongo The Kingdom of Kongo formed in central Africa through the union of local chiefdoms. It became a centralized state that later engaged directly with Portugal. ## 1392 — Founding of the Joseon Dynasty Yi Seong-gye overthrew the Goryeo dynasty and founded Joseon. The dynasty ruled Korea for over five centuries and shaped its Confucian culture. ## 1415 — Rise of the Portuguese Empire Portugal's capture of Ceuta began an era of maritime expansion along the African coast. It built a trading empire reaching India, Brazil, and East Asia. ## 1428 — Founding of the Aztec Empire The Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan formed the Aztec Empire. It came to dominate central Mexico through conquest and tribute. ## c. 1438 — Founding of the Inca Empire Pachacuti transformed the kingdom of Cusco into the vast Inca Empire. It became the largest empire in the pre-Columbian Americas, spanning the Andes. ## c. 1464 — Rise of the Songhai Empire Sunni Ali expanded Songhai into the largest empire in West African history. It absorbed the trading cities of Timbuktu and Djenné along the Niger River. ## 1492 — Rise of the Spanish Empire The union of Castile and Aragon and the voyage of Columbus launched Spain's overseas empire. It grew into one of the first global empires spanning the Americas and the Pacific. ## 1501 — Founding of the Safavid Empire Ismail I conquered Tabriz and founded the Safavid dynasty in Iran. He made Twelver Shia Islam the state religion, shaping Persian identity to this day. ## 1526 — Founding of the Mughal Empire Babur defeated the Delhi Sultanate at the Battle of Panipat and founded the Mughal Empire. The Mughals ruled most of the Indian subcontinent for over two centuries. ## 1547 — Founding of the Tsardom of Russia Ivan IV was crowned the first tsar of Russia, elevating the Moscow state to a tsardom. His reign began Russian expansion eastward into Siberia. ## c. 1583 — Rise of the British Empire England's first overseas claims began an expansion that grew into the British Empire. At its height it was the largest empire in history, spanning every continent. ## 1602 — Rise of the Dutch Empire The founding of the Dutch East India Company created a powerful commercial empire. The Dutch dominated global trade networks during the seventeenth century. ## 1603 — Founding of the Tokugawa Shogunate Tokugawa Ieyasu was appointed shogun, ending Japan's era of civil wars. The Tokugawa regime brought over two centuries of peace and isolation. ## c. 1605 — Rise of the French Colonial Empire French settlement in North America began the first French colonial empire. France built holdings in the Americas, Africa, and Asia over the following centuries. ## 1636 — Founding of the Qing Dynasty Hong Taiji proclaimed the Qing dynasty, uniting the Manchu, Mongol, and Han banners. The Qing later conquered China and expanded it to its greatest territorial size. ## 1674 — Founding of the Maratha Empire Shivaji was crowned and established the Maratha Empire in western India. The Marathas grew to challenge Mughal power across much of the subcontinent. ## 1701 — Founding of the Ashanti Empire Osei Tutu united the Akan states and founded the Ashanti Empire. The empire grew powerful through gold and the symbolic authority of the Golden Stool. ## 1721 — Founding of the Russian Empire Peter the Great was proclaimed emperor after victory in the Great Northern War. Russia became a major European power spanning much of northern Eurasia. ## 4 July 1776 — Founding of the United States The thirteen American colonies declared independence from Britain. The new republic would grow into a leading global power over the next two centuries. ## 1816 — Founding of the Zulu Kingdom Shaka reorganized the Zulu into a formidable military kingdom in southern Africa. His reforms reshaped the region during a period of upheaval. ## 1830 — Founding of the Second French Colonial Empire The invasion of Algeria began France's second wave of colonial expansion. This empire eventually covered large parts of Africa and Southeast Asia. ## 17 March 1861 — Unification of Italy The Kingdom of Italy is proclaimed under Victor Emmanuel II, uniting most of the peninsula after the Risorgimento. ## 1867 — Founding of Austria-Hungary The Austro-Hungarian Compromise created a dual monarchy joining Austria and Hungary. It became a major multiethnic power in central Europe until the First World War. ## 1868 — Founding of the Empire of Japan The Meiji Restoration returned power to the emperor and launched rapid modernization. Japan transformed into an industrial and imperial power within a generation. ## 1871 — Founding of the German Empire The German states unified under Prussian leadership after the Franco-Prussian War. The new empire quickly became a leading industrial and military power. ## 1945 — Rise of American Global Power The end of the Second World War left the United States as the world's dominant economic and military power. Its influence shaped global politics for the rest of the century.