Events, Verisoph

7 August 1819 Bolivar's northern campaign and Boyaca 0 cit. Simon Bolivar's victory at the Battle of Boyaca breaks Spanish power in New Granada and clears the way for the liberation of the north. Bolivar founds the union of Gran Colombia, joining present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama, as a base for further campaigns. He is celebrated across the region as the Liberator. politics / war ●●●

c. 1820 Oorlam Nama groups migrate north from the Cape 0 cit. Nama groups of mixed Khoikhoi and Cape Dutch descent, known as Oorlam, moved north across the Orange River into Namibia bringing horses and firearms acquired from Cape Colony trade networks. Their military advantage let them dominate other Nama and Damara groups and clash with the expanding Herero. Leaders such as Jonker Afrikaner became powerful regional rulers. war ●●

c. 25 March 1821 Independence of Greece 0 cit. no story The Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire begins; an independent Greek state was recognized in 1830. politics / war ●●●●

27 September 1821 Independence of Mexico 0 cit. no story The Army of the Three Guarantees enters Mexico City, completing the independence war begun with Hidalgo's Grito de Dolores in 1810. politics / war ●●●●

28 July 1821 Independence of Peru 0 cit. no story Jose de San Martin proclaims Peru's independence in Lima; Spanish forces were finally defeated at Ayacucho in 1824. politics / war ●●●

March 1821 to September 1829 Greek War of Independence 0 cit. Greeks revolt against four centuries of Ottoman rule, eventually winning independence with British, French, and Russian intervention at Navarino. It is the first successful national independence movement against the Ottomans. politics / war ●●●●

27 September 1821 Mexico achieves independence from Spain 0 cit. After eleven years of war, Mexico won independence from Spain as royalist and rebel factions united behind the Plan of Iguala. The long conflict had begun with Hidalgo and continued through leaders like Morelos. Independence ended three centuries of Spanish colonial rule. politics / war ●●

7 September 1822 Independence of Brazil 0 cit. no story Prince Pedro declares Brazil independent from Portugal with the Cry of Ipiranga and becomes Emperor Pedro I. politics / war ●●●●

2 December 1823 The Monroe Doctrine 0 cit. In his annual message President James Monroe warned European powers against new colonies in the Americas. The doctrine became a lasting basis for US influence over the hemisphere. politics / war ●●●●

9 December 1824 Battle of Ayacucho ends Spanish rule in South America 0 cit. Forces under Antonio Jose de Sucre defeated the main Spanish army in the highlands of Peru. The victory effectively ended Spanish colonial rule on the South American mainland. It completed the independence wars begun more than a decade earlier. politics / war ●●●

9 December 1824 The Battle of Ayacucho 0 cit. Forces under Bolivar's general Antonio Jose de Sucre defeat the main royalist army in the highlands of Peru. The victory effectively ends Spanish rule in South America and secures the independence of Peru and the new republic of Bolivia. It closes nearly two decades of continental warfare. politics / war ●●●

6 August 1825 Independence of Bolivia 0 cit. no story Bolivia declares independence from Spain after the wars of liberation led by Simon Bolivar and Antonio Jose de Sucre. politics / war ●●●

25 August 1825 Independence of Uruguay 0 cit. no story Uruguay declares independence from Brazil; full sovereignty was secured by the 1828 treaty ending the Cisplatine War. politics / war ●●●

July 1825 to March 1830 Java War 0 cit. Prince Diponegoro leads a mass uprising against Dutch colonial rule in Java, killing some 200,000 Javanese through war and famine. The Dutch victory consolidates their control of Indonesia. war ●●

December 1825 to August 1828 Cisplatine War 0 cit. no story Brazil and the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata fight over the Banda Oriental. British mediation ends the war by creating the independent state of Uruguay. politics / war ●●

15 June 1826 Auspicious Incident: Ottoman Sultan abolishes the Janissary corps 0 cit. After centuries of Janissary revolts, corruption, and resistance to military reform, Sultan Mahmud II provoked a Janissary uprising and then crushed it with loyal troops and artillery, killing thousands of Janissaries in Constantinople. He formally abolished the corps afterward, ending an institution that had repeatedly deposed and even executed sultans. The event, known as the Auspicious Incident, cleared the way for the sultan to build a modern, Western-style army. politics / war ●●●

15 June 1826 The Auspicious Incident abolishes the Janissaries 0 cit. Sultan Mahmud II crushes a Janissary revolt with artillery and disbands the corps, killing thousands. Once an elite fighting force, the Janissaries had become a conservative bloc blocking military and state reform. Their destruction cleared the way for a modern army and the reforms that followed. politics / society / war ●●

February 1828 Russia takes Eastern Armenia 0 cit. The Treaty of Turkmenchay ends a Russo-Persian war and transfers Eastern Armenia, including Yerevan and Nakhichevan, from Persia to the Russian Empire. Many Armenians welcome Russian rule as protection for a Christian population, and some migrate from Persian and Ottoman lands into Russian territory. This division, Russian east and Ottoman west, shapes the modern Armenian story. diplomacy / politics / war ●●

4 October 1830 Independence of Belgium 0 cit. no story Following the Belgian Revolution, the provisional government declares Belgium independent from the Netherlands. politics / war ●●●

c. June 1830 to c. 1903 French Conquest of Algeria 0 cit. no story France invades Algiers in 1830 and spends decades subduing resistance led by figures like Abd al-Qadir, at the cost of several hundred thousand Algerian lives. Algeria becomes the core of France's colonial empire. war ●●●●

1830 Founding of the Second French Colonial Empire 0 cit. The invasion of Algeria began France's second wave of colonial expansion. This empire eventually covered large parts of Africa and Southeast Asia. politics / war ●●●●

5 July 1830 French conquest of Algeria begins 0 cit. France captured Algiers and began a long, violent conquest of Algeria. It became a settler colony ruled as part of France, with land taken from Algerians for European colonists. politics / war ●●●●

c. 1830 The Iloikop wars 0 cit. Through the early and middle nineteenth century the Maa sections fought each other in a long series of conflicts known as the Iloikop or Kwavi wars. The pastoral sections, led by the Purko and Kisongo, clashed with rivals such as the Laikipiak and Uasin Gishu over grazing and cattle. By the 1870s the victors had broken and scattered the losing sections, leaving refugees absorbed into other peoples. politics / war ●●

21 August 1831 Nat Turner's rebellion 0 cit. Nat Turner led a revolt of enslaved people that killed around 60 white Virginians before it was suppressed. The reprisals and new restrictive laws that followed deepened the divide over slavery. society / war ●●●●

1 July 1832 Founding of Jardine Matheson 0 cit. Scottish traders William Jardine and James Matheson found a trading house in Canton dealing in tea, cotton, and opium. The firm helps push Britain into the First Opium War and becomes a pillar of colonial Hong Kong commerce. economy / politics / war ●●●

8 July 1833 Treaty of Hunkar Iskelesi 0 cit. Russo-Ottoman defensive alliance whose secret article obliged the Ottomans to close the Dardanelles to foreign warships at Russia's request. It alarmed Britain and France and fed the Eastern Question. diplomacy / politics / war ●●

2 October 1835 to 21 April 1836 Texas Revolution 0 cit. no story American settlers and Tejanos revolt against Mexico, losing the Alamo but winning decisively at San Jacinto. The war creates the independent Republic of Texas, later annexed by the United States. politics / war ●●

24 November 1835 Texas provisional government formally creates a ranger corps 0 cit. The provisional government of Texas, meeting during the lead-up to the Texas Revolution, authorized a corps of rangers to patrol the frontier between the Trinity and Guadalupe rivers. This is the date the Texas Rangers use as their official founding, though the force was small, unpaid in cash, and dissolved and reconstituted repeatedly over the following decades. It functioned less as a police agency than as an irregular militia. politics / war ●●

28 December 1835 Second Seminole War begins 0 cit. Seminole resistance to removal from Florida erupted into open war after an ambush killed Major Francis Dade and most of his command. The war lasted until 1842, cost the U.S. government tens of millions of dollars, and killed thousands of soldiers, Seminoles, and enslaved Black allies who had joined the Seminole cause. Most surviving Seminoles were eventually forced to Indian Territory, though a remnant held out in the Everglades. war ●●

c. 1836 Rangers serve in the Texas Revolution 0 cit. During the Texas Revolution, ranger companies scouted for the Texian army and skirmished with Mexican forces and Native American groups displaced by the fighting, including at Coleto and in Comanche raids near the Guadalupe. They were not present in force at the Alamo or San Jacinto. Their role was auxiliary and irregular, not the pivotal military force later legend sometimes implies. war ●

c. 1836 Creek (Muscogee) removal 0 cit. After the Second Creek War, federal troops and state militia forcibly marched most of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation from Alabama to Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma. Many were transported in chains as prisoners of war rather than as treaty parties. Historians estimate several thousand Creek people died from disease, exposure, and starvation during the removal and its immediate aftermath. politics / war ●●

1837 Republic of Texas re-authorizes ranger companies 0 cit. The Republic of Texas Congress funded ranger companies to defend the frontier against Comanche and Kiowa raids following independence. Funding was chronically short and companies were repeatedly disbanded and re-formed through the Republic period, a pattern that continued after annexation. The Rangers of this era were essentially part-time militia, not a standing police force. politics / war ●

16 December 1838 Battle of Blood River 0 cit. A Voortrekker force under Andries Pretorius defeated a much larger Zulu army under King Dingane at the Ncome River, after Dingane's men had earlier killed Voortrekker leader Piet Retief and his party during failed land negotiations. Several thousand Zulu warriors were killed, turning the river red with blood, giving the battle its name. The victory became a central event in Afrikaner nationalist memory, later commemorated as the Day of the Vow. war ●●●

c. September 1838 Cherokee Trail of Tears 0 cit. After the May 1838 removal deadline passed, U.S. Army troops under General Winfield Scott rounded up Cherokee families into stockades and forced roughly 16,000 people on a march west to Indian Territory, continuing into the spring of 1839. The Cherokee National Council later estimated that about 4,000 people died along the route and in the holding camps from disease, cold, and hunger; other scholarly estimates range somewhat lower. The route and removal became known as the Trail of Tears. politics / war ●●●

c. 1838 Australia's frontier wars and the Stolen Generations 0 cit. As British settlers spread across Australia from 1788, frontier violence, massacres such as Myall Creek in 1838, and introduced disease drove a steep collapse in the Aboriginal population. From the early twentieth century, protection laws let the state remove mixed-descent Aboriginal children from their families, the policy later known as the Stolen Generations. Settlers became the overwhelming majority, and Aboriginal people were governed as a controlled minority rather than a nation to be decolonized. politics / society / war ●●●

September 1839 to 29 August 1842 First Opium War 0 cit. Britain defeats Qing China in a war triggered by China's suppression of the opium trade. The Treaty of Nanking cedes Hong Kong and opens treaty ports, beginning China's century of humiliation. economy / war ●●●●

1839 to October 1842 First Anglo-Afghan War 0 cit. Britain invades Afghanistan to install a friendly ruler, but the occupation collapses and a retreating army of 16,000 is annihilated. The disaster becomes a byword for imperial overreach. war ●●●

1839 to 1842 The First Opium War and the Cession of Hong Kong 0 cit. Britain waged war on China after Chinese officials tried to stop the illegal opium trade run by British merchants. The Treaty of Nanking opened Chinese ports and ceded Hong Kong to Britain. economy / war ●●●●●

1839 to 1842 First Opium War and the Treaty of Nanking 0 cit. Britain went to war after China tried to stop the illegal opium trade, and forced open Chinese ports. The Treaty of Nanking ceded Hong Kong and began a century of unequal treaties and foreign concessions. economy / war ●●●●

July 1839 The Amistad revolt 0 cit. Captives aboard the schooner Amistad seized the ship and tried to sail back to Africa. Their case became a landmark test of freedom in the American courts. society / war ●●●

1839 The First Opium War and the Treaty of Nanjing 0 cit. Britain goes to war to force China to keep its markets open to opium. The 1842 Treaty of Nanjing ceded Hong Kong, opened treaty ports, and imposed an indemnity, the first of the unequal treaties that pried China open at gunpoint. diplomacy / economy / war ●●●

c. 1839 A global chain of naval bases and coaling stations 0 cit. British forces seized Aden in 1839, one link in a network of bases that came to include Gibraltar, Malta, the Cape, Singapore, Hong Kong, Bermuda, and the Falklands. After steam replaced sail, these ports doubled as coaling stations that let warships and merchantmen refuel anywhere on the globe. The chain tied the empire together and gave the Royal Navy reach into every ocean. economy / technology / war ●●●

c. 1840 Jack Hays takes command on the Comanche frontier 0 cit. John Coffee "Jack" Hays led ranger companies in a series of running fights with Comanche bands in central Texas through the early 1840s, becoming the most celebrated ranger captain of the era. Hays adopted new tactics of mounted, close-range combat that later Ranger mythology built into a foundational legend. Historians treat Hays as a genuinely effective frontier commander, while noting that later accounts of his exploits were embellished for popular audiences. war ●●

6 February 1840 New Zealand's Treaty of Waitangi and the land wars 0 cit. The Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 was signed between the British Crown and many Maori chiefs, but its Maori and English texts differed sharply over who held sovereignty. Disputes over land led to the New Zealand Wars of the 1840s to 1870s and large confiscations of Maori territory. British settlers became the majority, though the treaty later gave Maori a legal footing to press claims that survives today. diplomacy / politics / war ●●

c. 1840 The age-set system and the making of the ilmurran 0 cit. Maasai men passed together through named age-sets, spending years as ilmurran, the warriors often called moran. Newly circumcised youths became junior warriors and lived apart in a manyatta, a warrior settlement without the usual thorn stockade, where they trained, raided and guarded the herds. Only later did they marry and become elders, bound throughout by loyalty to their age-mates. society / war ●●●

29 August 1842 Treaty of Nanking 0 cit. Treaty ending the First Opium War, ceding Hong Kong to Britain, opening five ports, and imposing an indemnity on China. It was the first of the unequal treaties that defined China's century of humiliation. diplomacy / economy / politics / war ●●●●

29 August 1842 First Opium War ends with Treaty of Nanking 0 cit. Britain defeated Qing China in the First Opium War, fought partly over China's efforts to stop British merchants from smuggling opium into the country. The resulting Treaty of Nanking ceded Hong Kong to Britain, opened five treaty ports to foreign trade, and forced China to pay a large indemnity. It was the first of the so-called unequal treaties that eroded Chinese sovereignty over the following decades. diplomacy / war ●●●

c. 1843 to c. 1849 Conquest of Sindh and the Punjab 0 cit. British forces annexed Sindh and, after two wars with the Sikhs, the Punjab. The conquests extended British India to the mountains of the northwest frontier. war ●●●

27 February 1844 Independence of the Dominican Republic 0 cit. no story Dominican rebels proclaim independence from Haiti, ending twenty-two years of Haitian rule over the eastern part of Hispaniola. politics / war ●●●

c. June 1844 Battle of Walker Creek and the Colt revolver 0 cit. Hays's rangers, armed with Samuel Colt's new five-shot revolving pistol, fought a mounted engagement against a larger Comanche force near present-day Kendall County and reportedly held their own where single-shot weapons would have left them defenseless after one volley. Accounts of the battle come mainly from ranger participants and later retellings, so exact numbers are uncertain, but the episode is credited with demonstrating the revolver's value in mounted combat. technology / war ●●

December 1845 to March 1849 Anglo-Sikh Wars 0 cit. no story The British East India Company defeats the Sikh Empire in two hard-fought wars. The victory annexes the Punjab, completing British control of India. war ●●●

10 October 1845 Founding of the Naval Academy at Annapolis 0 cit. Navy Secretary George Bancroft opens the Naval School at Fort Severn in Annapolis with 50 midshipmen. Renamed the United States Naval Academy in 1850, it becomes the Navy's officer training ground. war ●●

25 April 1846 to 2 February 1848 Mexican-American War 0 cit. no story The United States defeats Mexico and takes its capital. The peace transfers roughly half of Mexico's territory, including California and the Southwest, to the United States. politics / war ●●●●

c. 1846 Rangers serve in the Mexican-American War 0 cit. Ranger units under Hays and others were mustered into U.S. service during the Mexican-American War, scouting and fighting alongside the regular army in northern Mexico. Mexican civilians came to call them "los diablos Tejanos" (the Texan devils) for the harshness of their conduct, including reprisal killings of civilians reported by U.S. Army officers at the time. This reputation for violence against Mexican civilians recurs throughout Ranger history and is documented well before the twentieth-century border violence. war ●●

1847 Samuel Walker helps design the Walker Colt 0 cit. Former ranger Samuel Walker worked with Samuel Colt to design a heavier, six-shot revolver for U.S. Mounted Rifles use in the Mexican-American War, produced as the Colt Walker. Texas Rangers serving in that war, including under Hays, carried the new revolvers and helped popularize them as cavalry and frontier weapons. The Walker Colt is often cited in Ranger lore as proof of a special bond between the Rangers and Colt, though the weapon was developed for the U.S. Army generally, not the Rangers alone. technology / war ●●

2 February 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 0 cit. Peace ending the Mexican-American War, with Mexico ceding roughly half its territory including California and the Southwest to the United States for 15 million dollars. It fixed the Rio Grande as the Texas border. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●●

September 1848 to 13 August 1849 Hungarian War of Independence 0 cit. no story Hungary fights for independence from Habsburg Austria during the revolutions of 1848. Austria wins only after calling in a Russian army, and executes the rebel generals. politics / war ●●●

March 1848 to 1852 First Schleswig War 0 cit. no story Denmark and German nationalists backed by Prussia fight over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Denmark keeps the duchies, but the dispute reignites in 1864. politics / war ●●

c. 1848 to c. 1866 Wars of Italian Unification 0 cit. no story Piedmont, aided by France and by Garibaldi's volunteers, fights Austria and the Italian states in three wars of independence. The campaigns unite most of Italy under the House of Savoy by 1866, with Rome added in 1870. politics / war ●●●●

2 February 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ends the Mexican-American War 0 cit. The treaty ended the war with Mexico and transferred vast territory in the West and Southwest to the United States. The gains nearly completed the continental expansion of the country. politics / war ●●●

1848 The Young Irelander rebellion 0 cit. Amid the famine and the wave of 1848 revolutions across Europe, the Young Ireland movement attempted a rising against British rule. The revolt was small and quickly collapsed in a skirmish at Ballingarry. Its leaders were transported or exiled, but its ideas fed later republican movements, including the Fenians. politics / war ●

December 1850 to August 1864 Taiping Rebellion 0 cit. Hong Xiuquan, claiming to be Christ's younger brother, leads a vast rebellion that seizes Nanjing and much of southern China. Its suppression costs an estimated 20 to 30 million lives, making it the deadliest civil war in history. religion / society / war ●●●●●

c. 1850 The Bukusu and their fortified villages 0 cit. Unlike the centralised Wanga, the Bukusu lived in clan settlements defended by fortified villages known as chingit, ringed with mud-and-stone walls, ditches and thorn. These forts guarded people and cattle against raiding Nilotic neighbours and rival clans. Their strength later made them centres of armed resistance to British conquest. society / war ●●

c. 1850 Supeet and the rise of the oloibon prophets contested 0 cit. The oloibon, often written laibon, was a ritual expert and prophet whose blessings and divination were sought before raids and in times of trouble. Supeet was remembered as a powerful oloibon of the Kisongo section who helped bind scattered Maasai groups behind common war aims. His standing showed how spiritual authority reinforced Maasai military strength. society / war ●●

1851 to August 1868 Nian Rebellion 0 cit. no story Bandit-led rebel armies ravage northern China alongside the Taiping Rebellion. The revolt further drains the Qing dynasty's strength. society / war ●●●

1851 Krupp exhibits a cast steel cannon at the Great Exhibition 0 cit. At the 1851 Great Exhibition in London Krupp showed a large flawless block of cast steel and a steel cannon. The display announced the firm's move into steel artillery. technology / war ●●●

16 October 1853 to 30 March 1856 Crimean War 0 cit. Britain, France, and the Ottomans fight Russia, mainly in the Crimea, to check Russian expansion. The war kills over 600,000, mostly from disease, and spurs reforms from nursing to Russian serf emancipation. politics / war ●●●●

1853 to 1856 Crimean War and the 'sick man of Europe' 0 cit. Britain and France join the Ottomans against Russia and win, but the war leaves the empire deep in foreign debt. The Russian tsar's reported description of the Ottoman state as the 'sick man of Europe' captured the view that its collapse was only a matter of time and that the great powers were circling its lands. diplomacy / economy / war ●●

1855 Emperor Tewodros II reunifies Ethiopia 0 cit. After nearly a century of fragmentation known as the Era of the Princes, Kassa Hailu crowned himself Tewodros II and set out to pull the regional lords back under one throne. He tried to curb the power of the nobility and the church and to build a modern army, including a great cannon he had cast with the help of European missionaries. His reforms were harsh and often resisted, but he began the process that later emperors would complete. politics / war ●●

c. 1855 Cattle raiding and the tribute of fear 0 cit. The Maasai believed their god had given them all cattle, and raiding neighbours for herds was treated as recovery, not theft. Their reach let them tax caravans, demand hongo tribute and hold farming peoples in check. Early European travellers routinely paid to pass and described the Maasai as the terror of the caravan routes. economy / war ●●●

30 March 1856 Treaty of Paris (1856) 0 cit. Peace ending the Crimean War, neutralizing the Black Sea and admitting the Ottoman Empire to the European concert. It checked Russian expansion for a generation. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

October 1856 to October 1860 Second Opium War 0 cit. Britain and France renew war on Qing China, occupying Beijing and burning the Summer Palace. The treaties legalize opium and force China further open to foreign trade and missionaries. economy / war ●●●

1856 to 1873 Panthay Rebellion 0 cit. no story Hui Muslims in Yunnan rebel against Qing rule and establish a separate sultanate at Dali. The suppression kills up to a million people. religion / war ●●●

1856 to 1860 Second Opium War and the Convention of Peking 0 cit. Britain and France attacked China again, sacked the Summer Palace and imposed further concessions. The war deepened the semi-colonial carve-up of China and legalized the opium trade. economy / war ●●●

1856 The Second Opium War and the burning of the Summer Palace 0 cit. Britain and France renew the war to widen their trade rights, and in 1860 their troops loot and burn the imperial Summer Palace in Beijing. The peace treaties legalized the opium trade outright and deepened foreign control over China's economy. diplomacy / economy / war ●●●

10 May 1857 to 1 November 1858 Indian Rebellion of 1857 0 cit. Sepoys of the East India Company army revolt and are joined by princes and peasants across northern India. Britain crushes the rising with great brutality and replaces Company rule with direct Crown rule. politics / war ●●●●

1857 End of the Mughal Empire 0 cit. After the failed Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British deposed and exiled the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II. The dynasty ended and the British Crown took direct control of India. politics / war ●●●●

1857 The Indian Rebellion and the start of Crown rule 0 cit. A mutiny among East India Company troops in 1857 grew into a wide revolt across northern India. British forces suppressed it over the following year with heavy reprisals and loss of life on both sides. In 1858 the Company was abolished and India passed to direct rule by the British Crown. politics / society / war ●●●●

21 July 1858 Plombieres Agreement 0 cit. Secret verbal pact between Napoleon III and Cavour of Piedmont-Sardinia to provoke war with Austria and drive it from Italy, with France gaining Savoy and Nice. It set the stage for Italian unification. diplomacy / politics / war ●●

2 August 1858 The Crown takes over India from the Company 0 cit. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 exposed the dangers of company rule, the Government of India Act transferred the East India Company's territories, army, and administration to the British Crown. The company had governed much of the subcontinent for a century, complete with its own soldiers and courts. Its dissolution marked the end of the greatest experiment in a private company acting as a sovereign state. politics / war ●●●

2 August 1858 Crown takes over rule of India from the East India Company 0 cit. After the 1857 rebellion, the Government of India Act abolished Company rule and transferred its Indian territories, armies, and revenues directly to the British Crown. The episode marked the outer limit of governing a subcontinent as a private company. It is often read as the moment a state formally reclaimed what a corporation had been running. politics / war ●●●

24 October 1860 Convention of Peking 0 cit. Settlement imposed on China after the Second Opium War, ceding Kowloon to Britain, opening Tianjin, and confirming large Russian gains in the Amur region. It deepened the unequal treaty system. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

29 December 1860 HMS Warrior launched 0 cit. The Royal Navy launched HMS Warrior, Britain's response to France's Gloire, the world's first ocean-going ironclad. Warrior combined an iron hull and armor with steam propulsion and sail, instantly making existing wooden battle fleets obsolete. Its launch opened an arms race in armored warship design among the naval powers. technology / war ●●

c. 1860 Mwami Rwabugiri centralizes the kingdom 0 cit. King Kigeli IV Rwabugiri ran a long campaign of conquest and administrative reform that greatly strengthened the central court. His reign tightened the reach of the monarchy and sharpened distinctions between rulers and ruled. These pre-colonial hierarchies gave later European administrators a structure they would harden into racial rule. politics / war ●

17 March 1861 Unification of Italy 0 cit. The Kingdom of Italy is proclaimed under Victor Emmanuel II, uniting most of the peninsula after the Risorgimento. politics / war ●●●●

December 1861 to June 1867 French Intervention in Mexico 0 cit. no story Napoleon III installs Maximilian of Austria as emperor of Mexico, but republican forces under Benito Juarez fight on. The French withdraw and Maximilian is executed in 1867. politics / war ●●●

12 April 1861 to 9 April 1865 American Civil War 0 cit. no story Eleven slaveholding states secede and fight the Union in America's deadliest war, killing over 600,000 soldiers. Union victory preserves the nation and ends slavery. politics / society / war ●●●●●

1862 to 1877 Dungan Revolt 0 cit. no story Hui Muslim communities in northwest China rise against Qing rule in a war entangled with famine and massacre. Millions die and whole regions are depopulated before the Qing reconquest. religion / war ●●●

1 July 1862 Founding of the IRS and the First Income Tax 0 cit. To finance the Civil War, Lincoln signs the Revenue Act of 1862, creating the office of Commissioner of Internal Revenue and a national income tax. The wartime tax lapses but the bureau survives as the Internal Revenue Service. economy / war ●●●

1862 The United States greenback 0 cit. To finance the Civil War, the Union issued paper notes called greenbacks that were legal tender but not redeemable in gold. They marked a major move toward government-issued paper money in the United States. economy / politics / war ●●●

8 March 1862 Battle of Hampton Roads 0 cit. The Confederate ironclad CSS Virginia and the Union ironclad USS Monitor fought the first battle between armored steam warships, ending in a tactical draw after hours of cannon fire that neither ship's armor could penetrate. The battle demonstrated that wooden warships were now obsolete against ironclads. Navies worldwide accelerated conversion to armored, steam-powered fleets afterward. technology / war ●●

17 February 1863 Founding of the International Committee of the Red Cross 0 cit. Henry Dunant and four Geneva citizens create a relief committee for wounded soldiers, the seed of the worldwide Red Cross and Red Crescent movement and of the Geneva Conventions. diplomacy / society / war ●●●●

1 January 1863 Emancipation Proclamation frees the enslaved in rebel states 0 cit. President Lincoln declared enslaved people in the Confederate states to be free, turning the Civil War into a fight against slavery. It did not free everyone at once but marked a decisive step toward abolition. politics / war ●●●

1 January 1863 The Emancipation Proclamation 0 cit. President Lincoln declared enslaved people in the rebelling Confederate states to be free. It reframed the Civil War as a struggle over slavery, though it freed no one immediately in areas beyond Union control. politics / war ●●●●

17 February 1863 Founding of the Red Cross in Geneva 0 cit. A committee of five Geneva citizens, including Dunant, formed the body that became the International Committee of the Red Cross. Neutral Switzerland gave the organisation a home from which it could aid victims on all sides without being seen as taking part in a war. The white flag with a red cross reversed the Swiss national colours, tying the movement to its country of origin. society / war ●●●

22 August 1864 First Geneva Convention 0 cit. Convention for the amelioration of the condition of wounded soldiers in the field, inspired by Henry Dunant and the new Red Cross. It founded modern international humanitarian law. diplomacy / society / war ●●●●

November 1864 to 1 March 1870 Paraguayan War 0 cit. no story Paraguay fights Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay in South America's deadliest war. Paraguay loses much of its territory and a majority of its male population. war ●●●●

August 1864 to February 1865 Uruguayan War 0 cit. no story Brazil intervenes in Uruguay's civil strife to install the Colorado party in power. The war's entanglements help trigger the far larger Paraguayan War. politics / war ●●

c. 1864 End of the Caucasian War 0 cit. After decades of fighting, Russia completed its conquest of the North Caucasus, defeating mountain resistance led earlier by figures such as Imam Shamil. The campaign was followed by the mass expulsion of many Circassians. politics / society / war ●●●

22 August 1864 First Geneva Convention Signed 0 cit. Twelve European states signed the first Geneva Convention, agreeing to protect wounded soldiers and medical personnel on the battlefield regardless of which side they fought for. The treaty, driven by Henry Dunant's campaigning after the Battle of Solferino, was the first modern international agreement to codify limits on the conduct of war. It began the treaty-based body of international humanitarian law that later Geneva and Hague conventions expanded. diplomacy / war ●●●