Events, Verisoph

1807 Slave trade abolished in the British Empire 0 cit. Britain's abolition of the slave trade in 1807 ended the legal importation of new enslaved people into the Cape Colony, though existing slavery continued. The measure was part of a broader British imperial policy shift that would culminate in full emancipation decades later. Cape slave owners and farmers had grown reliant on enslaved labor for decades by this point. politics / society ●●

1808 to 1833 Spanish American Wars of Independence 0 cit. Napoleon's occupation of Spain triggers independence movements across Spanish America, led by Bolivar, San Martin, and others. By 1826 nearly all of mainland Spanish America is independent. politics / war ●●●●●

1808 Fichte's Addresses to the German Nation 0 cit. Johann Gottlieb Fichte delivers lectures in French-occupied Berlin calling on Germans to see themselves as one nation with a shared language and destiny. The addresses become a founding statement of modern nationalism. culture / politics ●●

1808 to 1826 Latin American wars of independence 0 cit. Napoleon's occupation of Spain triggered revolts that grew into wars led by figures such as Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin. By 1826 Spain had lost nearly all of its mainland American empire to new independent republics. politics / war ●●●●●

c. 1808 Prince Hall Freemasonry grows and seeks recognition 0 cit. After African Lodge declared itself an independent Grand Lodge, Prince Hall Masonry spread into a national network of Black Grand Lodges. Mainstream American Grand Lodges long withheld formal recognition, and mutual recognition advanced slowly through the 20th century. politics / society ●●●

1 January 1808 United States bans the importation of slaves 0 cit. A federal law took effect on 1 January 1808 prohibiting the import of enslaved people from abroad. Slavery itself continued and expanded, now fed by an internal trade rather than transatlantic shipments. politics / society ●●●●

1808 The Royal Navy's West Africa Squadron 0 cit. Britain stationed a naval squadron off West Africa to intercept slave ships after abolishing the trade. Over decades it freed roughly 150,000 captives, though the trade continued under other flags. politics / war ●●●

1808 Napoleon creates the baccalaureat 0 cit. Napoleon established the baccalaureat as the national exam ending secondary school and opening university. It anchored the centralized French system and still governs entry to higher education. culture / politics ●●●

1808 Napoleon centralizes French education under the state 0 cit. Napoleon created the Imperial University, a single state body governing schools and lycees across France. It set the pattern of top-down central control that still defines French education. politics / society ●●●

c. 1808 Prussia's Krümper system evades Napoleon's troop cap 0 cit. After Napoleon capped the Prussian army at 42,000 men following its 1806 defeat, reformers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau introduced the Krümper system, rapidly training conscripts and discharging them into a reserve to make room for new recruits. This let Prussia build up a much larger trained reserve than the treaty allowed, on paper without exceeding the limit. The reserve force helped Prussia field a substantially expanded army against Napoleon in 1813. politics / war ●●

1808 Prussian General Staff formally established 0 cit. Following defeat by Napoleon, Prussia formally established a permanent General Staff responsible for planning, training, and doctrine independent of any single commander, staffed by officers selected through the Kriegsakademie rather than by birth alone. This institutionalized professional military planning as a standing function of the state rather than something improvised for each war. The Prussian and later German General Staff became the model imitated by most modern armies. politics / war ●●●

c. 1808 Prussia's Krümper System Evades Troop Caps 0 cit. After Napoleon's defeat of Prussia forced a treaty limiting the size of its standing army, Prussian reformers led by Gerhard von Scharnhorst introduced the Krümper system, rapidly training and discharging recruits so that a large reserve of trained men existed outside the capped standing force. The scheme let Prussia rebuild a mass fighting capacity while formally complying with the treaty's limits. It fed into the broader nineteenth-century Prussian model of conscription paired with a large trained reserve. politics / war ●●

1808 Napoleon's invasion of Iberia sparks a crisis 0 cit. Napoleon's occupation of Spain and forced abdication of its king throws colonial authority into doubt across Spanish America. Local juntas begin governing in the name of the deposed monarch, opening the way to full independence movements. The Portuguese court, meanwhile, flees to Rio de Janeiro, briefly making Brazil the seat of an empire. politics / war ●●

March 1808 The court flees to Rio de Janeiro 0 cit. With Napoleon's army invading, the Portuguese royal family and court sail to Brazil under British escort and set up the seat of the empire in Rio de Janeiro. For the first time a European monarchy ruled from its colony, and Brazil was raised to a kingdom in its own right. politics / war ●●

1808 The West Africa Squadron against the slave trade 0 cit. After Parliament abolished the British slave trade in 1807, the Royal Navy formed the West Africa Squadron to intercept slave ships off the African coast. Based at Freetown, the squadron patrolled for decades and freed roughly 150,000 people from captured vessels. It was a sustained naval campaign against the Atlantic slave trade, carried out at real cost in ships and lives. politics / society / war ●●●

1809 War of the Fifth Coalition 0 cit. In 1809 Austria again went to war against France, a conflict decided in the Danube valley within months. politics / war ●●●

14 October 1809 Treaty of Schonbrunn 0 cit. Signed on 14 October 1809, the treaty imposed harsh terms on Austria and further extended French influence in Europe. politics / war ●●

1 April 1810 Marriage of Napoleon and Marie Louise 0 cit. In April 1810 Napoleon married Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria, a dynastic alliance meant to secure an heir and tie France to a former enemy. politics / society ●●

c. 1810 Latin American republics win independence 0 cit. Movements led by figures such as Bolivar broke Spanish rule and founded republics across the Americas. The republican model spread widely, though many new states struggled with instability and strongman rule. politics / war ●●●●

16 September 1810 The Grito de Dolores opens Mexico's independence war 0 cit. The priest Miguel Hidalgo issued a call to revolt against Spanish colonial rule, an event known as the Grito de Dolores. It sparked a long and bloody struggle for Mexican independence. The date is now celebrated as Mexico's national day. politics / war ●●

c. 1810 Freemasonry spreads on the West African coast 0 cit. English and Scottish lodges were warranted in West African coastal settlements such as Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast in the early nineteenth century. Members included colonial officials, traders, soldiers, and later Western-educated Africans. On the coast the lodge became a status institution linking the colonial administration with a small African professional elite. politics / society ●

May 1810 The May Revolution in Buenos Aires 0 cit. A local junta in Buenos Aires ousts the Spanish viceroy, an early step toward independence in the Rio de la Plata. Similar movements break out across the continent from Caracas to Bogota to Santiago. Years of war would follow before independence was secure. politics / war ●●

1811 to 1816 The Luddites break industrial machines 0 cit. Textile workers smashed machines they blamed for cutting jobs and wages. The government sent troops and made machine-breaking a capital crime, and the protests were crushed. politics / society ●●●●

5 July 1811 Venezuela declares independence and the Bolivar wars begin 0 cit. Venezuela declared independence from Spain, opening the long northern campaign led by Simon Bolivar. Early republics collapsed and the war swung back and forth for years. Bolivar became the central figure in liberating much of South America. politics / war ●●

c. 1812 Masonic lodges and Latin American independence 0 cit. Leaders of Spanish American independence, including Simon Bolivar, Jose de San Martin, and Bernardo O'Higgins, were linked to the Lautaro Lodge network that coordinated revolutionary aims. Masonic ties provided a channel for organizing across borders. politics / religion / war ●●●

24 June 1812 Napoleon's Invasion of Russia 0 cit. Napoleon's Grande Armee invaded Russia, fought the bloody Battle of Borodino, and entered a largely abandoned and burning Moscow. The catastrophic winter retreat destroyed most of his army and marked a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars. politics / war ●●●●●

1812 Eugène François Vidocq becomes head of the Sûreté 0 cit. Former criminal Eugène François Vidocq was appointed to lead a new plainclothes detective unit in Paris that became the Sûreté Nationale. He pioneered techniques still used in criminal investigation, including undercover infiltration, ballistics comparison, and record-keeping on known offenders. Vidocq's model of using former criminals as detectives influenced the founding of detective bureaus across Europe and the United States. politics ●●

c. 1812 Vidocq founds the forerunner of France's Sûreté 0 cit. Eugène François Vidocq, a former criminal turned police informant, was authorized to organize a plainclothes detective unit, the Brigade de Sûreté, staffed largely with ex-convicts who knew Paris's criminal underworld from the inside. The unit was the direct ancestor of France's national Sûreté and is widely credited as one of the first modern criminal investigation bureaus, pioneering techniques such as undercover work and detailed criminal recordkeeping. culture / politics ●●

c. 1812 Lautaro lodges and Spanish American independence 0 cit. Revolutionaries including Jose de San Martin were tied to the Lautaro lodges, secret societies modeled on Masonic forms and founded to work for Spanish American independence. Historians distinguish these political lodges from regular Freemasonry, though the two overlapped in membership and ritual. They gave independence leaders a disciplined, secret network across the Atlantic. politics / society ●●

27 December 1813 Formation of the United Grand Lodge of England 0 cit. The rival Antients and Moderns Grand Lodges united in 1813 to form the United Grand Lodge of England. It remains the governing body of English Freemasonry and a global standard for regularity. politics / religion / society ●●●●

27 December 1813 The United Grand Lodge of England formed 0 cit. The Antients and the Moderns settled their long rivalry and merged into the United Grand Lodge of England in December 1813. The union fixed standard ritual and governance that shaped regular Freemasonry across the British Empire. politics / society ●●●●●

c. 1813 Provincial Grand Lodges reorganized across British India 0 cit. Following the 1813 union of the Antients and Moderns in London, the new United Grand Lodge of England reorganized its overseas Provincial Grand Lodges, including those in Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, under a single unified structure. This tied Indian Freemasonry more closely to London's central authority just as East India Company rule was expanding. Colonial administrators, army officers, and merchants continued to dominate lodge membership across British India. politics / society ●

27 December 1813 Duke of Sussex leads the union of English Freemasonry 0 cit. Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex, became the first Grand Master of the newly formed United Grand Lodge of England, created by merging the rival 'Antients' and 'Moderns' Grand Lodges. His brother, Edward, Duke of Kent, briefly served as Grand Master of the Antients to help broker the merger. Sussex went on to lead the united body for over three decades until his death in 1843. Some writers treat this royal stewardship of Freemasonry as evidence of hidden elite control; mainstream historians treat it as a well documented instance of aristocratic patronage rather than proof of a secret ruling hand. politics / society ●●●

September 1814 to 9 June 1815 Congress of Vienna 0 cit. Conference of the powers that defeated Napoleon, redrawing the map of Europe and restoring a balance of power. Its Final Act of June 1815 shaped the European order for a century. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●●●

24 December 1814 Treaty of Ghent 0 cit. Peace treaty between Britain and the United States ending the War of 1812 and restoring prewar boundaries. News arrived after the Battle of New Orleans had already been fought. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

7 August 1814 Restoration of the Society of Jesus 0 cit. Pope Pius VII restored the Society of Jesus worldwide with the bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum. The order resumed its work in education and missions. politics / religion ●●●

7 August 1814 Restoration of the Jesuits 0 cit. Pope Pius VII restored the Society of Jesus worldwide after the fall of Napoleon. The order returned to its work in education and missions as the Church regrouped in a changed Europe. politics / religion ●●

30 March 1814 Capture of Paris 0 cit. On 30 to 31 March 1814 allied armies entered Paris after the collapse of French defenses, forcing Napoleon's political downfall. politics / war ●●●●

6 April 1814 First Abdication of Napoleon 0 cit. On 6 April 1814 Napoleon abdicated unconditionally at Fontainebleau, ending the First Empire and his rule over France. politics ●●●●●

4 May 1814 Napoleon's Exile to Elba 0 cit. In May 1814 Napoleon arrived on the Mediterranean island of Elba, where he was given nominal sovereignty as a defeated emperor. politics ●●●

30 May 1814 First Treaty of Paris 0 cit. Signed on 30 May 1814, the treaty ended the war with a restored Bourbon France and set generous terms ahead of the Congress of Vienna. politics ●●●

1814 Prussia introduces universal military conscription 0 cit. Prussia enacted a law requiring military service from all able-bodied men regardless of class, backed by a reserve system, the Landwehr, that could rapidly expand the army in wartime. This broke with the older practice of relying on mercenaries or a narrow conscripted underclass while nobles served as officers by right of birth. The system became a template for conscription across continental Europe through the 19th and 20th centuries. politics / war ●●

24 August 1814 Militia rout at Bladensburg 0 cit. Hastily assembled American militia broke and fled before British regulars at the Battle of Bladensburg, opening the road to Washington, D.C., which the British burned days later. The defeat, mocked afterward as the Bladensburg Races, became a byword for the limits of poorly trained, poorly equipped militia against professional troops. It fed a long argument in American military policy over whether the militia system could be relied on for national defense. politics / war ●●

13 July 1814 Italy's Carabinieri founded 0 cit. King Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia established the Carabinieri Royal Corps as a gendarmerie combining military and civil policing duties, modeled partly on the French gendarmerie. The force became the senior military corps of unified Italy after 1861 and remains one of Europe's oldest continuously operating national gendarmeries, with both domestic policing and military functions. politics / war ●●

13 July 1814 The Carabinieri founded in the Kingdom of Sardinia 0 cit. King Victor Emmanuel I created the Corps of Carabinieri as a mounted and foot force to guard the restored Savoyard state, modeled closely on the French gendarmerie. The Carabinieri were both a branch of the armed forces and a police force for the general public, a dual role they carry to this day. As Italy unified, the corps became the country's senior national police with a permanent military status. politics / society ●●

26 October 1814 The Royal Netherlands Marechaussee established 0 cit. The newly independent Kingdom of the Netherlands created the Koninklijke Marechaussee, taking both the French gendarmerie model and its name from the old Maréchaussée left behind by French occupation. It served as a military police force that also handled civil policing in parts of the country and, later, border and colonial duties. Its survival shows how the gendarmerie template outlasted the Napoleonic empire that spread it. politics / society ●

1814 Malta and Gibraltar anchor the Mediterranean 0 cit. The Treaty of Paris in 1814 confirmed British possession of Malta, adding to Gibraltar, held since 1713. The two fortress harbors gave the Royal Navy control of the western and central Mediterranean. They became the model for a worldwide system of naval strongpoints guarding the routes of British trade. politics / war ●●●

3 January 1815 Secret Treaty of Vienna 0 cit. Secret defensive alliance of Austria, Britain, and restored France against Russia and Prussia during the Congress of Vienna, sparked by the dispute over Saxony and Poland. It helped force a compromise when its existence leaked. diplomacy / politics ●●

26 September 1815 Holy Alliance 0 cit. Pact among Russia, Austria, and Prussia framing post-Napoleonic order in Christian terms and defending monarchical rule. It became a symbol of conservative reaction in Europe. diplomacy / politics / religion ●●

9 June 1815 Founding of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine 0 cit. The Final Act of the Congress of Vienna establishes a permanent commission to guarantee free navigation on the Rhine, generally regarded as the oldest international organization still in existence. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●

18 June 1815 Battle of Waterloo 0 cit. Allied armies under Wellington and Blucher defeat Napoleon, ending his rule for good. The victory closes a quarter century of revolutionary wars and opens a century of relative great-power peace in Europe. politics / war ●●●●

22 June 1815 Fall of the First French Empire 0 cit. After defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon abdicated a second time on 22 June 1815. His fall ended the First French Empire and restored the Bourbon monarchy. politics / war ●●●●

9 June 1815 Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe 0 cit. The Congress of Vienna closed with a Final Act reorganizing Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. It established the Concert of Europe, a loose system by which the great powers managed international affairs through periodic congresses. politics / war ●●●●●

8 February 1815 Congress of Vienna condemns the trade 0 cit. The European powers issued a joint declaration condemning the slave trade as contrary to justice. The statement carried no enforcement, but it set an international standard against the traffic. politics ●●

1815 War of the Seventh Coalition 0 cit. In 1815 the allied powers united once more to defeat Napoleon after his return from Elba, a campaign settled at Waterloo. politics / war ●●●●

1 March 1815 Napoleon's Return from Elba 0 cit. On 1 March 1815 Napoleon landed in southern France after escaping Elba, beginning the period known as the Hundred Days as he retook power without a shot. politics / war ●●●●

22 June 1815 Second Abdication of Napoleon 0 cit. On 22 June 1815 Napoleon abdicated a second time after the defeat at Waterloo, ending the Hundred Days. politics ●●●●

15 October 1815 Napoleon's Exile to Saint Helena 0 cit. In October 1815 Napoleon arrived on the remote South Atlantic island of Saint Helena, where the British held him in captivity for the rest of his life. politics ●●●

20 November 1815 Second Treaty of Paris 0 cit. Signed on 20 November 1815 after Waterloo, the treaty imposed stricter terms on France, including an indemnity and reduced borders. politics ●●●

8 June 1815 German Confederation Established 0 cit. On 8 June 1815 the Congress of Vienna created a loose confederation of German states to replace the vanished Holy Roman Empire. politics ●●●

c. 1815 Concert of Europe 0 cit. After 1815 the great powers cooperated through periodic congresses to manage disputes and preserve the balance of power, keeping general peace for decades. politics ●●●●

c. 1815 Rise of European Nationalism 0 cit. The revolutionary and Napoleonic era spread ideas of popular sovereignty and national identity that fueled nationalist movements across nineteenth century Europe. politics / society ●●●●

1815 Nathan Rothschild and the Waterloo bond myth 0 cit. Nathan Mayer Rothschild made his London house a major force in British government finance around the Napoleonic Wars. A popular legend claims he got early news of Waterloo and made a killing crashing the market, a story pushed hardest in antisemitic propaganda and not supported by the evidence. The real achievement was ordinary hard finance, raising loans and trading bonds, not a secret coup. economy / politics ●●

c. 1815 Pax Britannica and the primacy of the Royal Navy 0 cit. After the defeat of Napoleon, Britain emerged as the world's leading naval, financial, and industrial power, opening a century of relative peace among the great powers that historians call the Pax Britannica. British sea power secured trade routes across the globe and made London the hub of world commerce. economy / politics / war ●●●

20 March 1815 The Congress of Vienna declares perpetual neutrality 0 cit. As Europe's powers redrew the map after Napoleon, they issued a declaration recognising the permanent neutrality of Switzerland and the inviolability of its territory. Neutrality here served the powers as much as the Swiss: a stable buffer state sat between France, Austria and the German lands where no rival could gain advantage. The principle was thus written into the postwar settlement by the great powers themselves. diplomacy / politics ●●●

20 November 1815 The Treaty of Paris guarantees Swiss neutrality 0 cit. In a formal act signed at Paris, the major powers confirmed and guaranteed Switzerland's perpetual neutrality and the integrity of its borders. This turned the Vienna declaration into a binding international guarantee backed by the signatories. It is the legal foundation on which modern Swiss neutrality still rests. diplomacy / politics ●●●

1815 Royal Navy supremacy after the Napoleonic Wars 0 cit. With the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, no rival fleet could match the Royal Navy. Britain emerged from the wars with the largest navy in the world and used it to police sea lanes, protect trade, and project power globally. This maritime dominance underwrote British foreign policy for the rest of the nineteenth century. politics / war ●●●●

1815 The idea of Pax Britannica, 1815 to 1914 0 cit. The century between Waterloo and the First World War saw no general war among Europe's great powers, a period later named the Pax Britannica after the Roman peace. Britain's naval supremacy, financial weight, and diplomacy are credited with helping keep that balance. Critics and many historians argue the peace held among the great powers but rested on naval force and did not extend to the colonized world, where wars and conquests ran on without pause. diplomacy / politics ●●●●

10 April 1816 Founding of the Second Bank of the United States 1 cit. President Madison signs the charter of a second national bank to stabilize currency chaos after the War of 1812. Under Nicholas Biddle it becomes the young republic's most powerful financial institution and the focus of a bitter political fight. economy / politics ●●●●

10 April 1816 Second Bank of the United States chartered 0 cit. Congress chartered the Second Bank of the United States after the first bank's charter lapsed in 1811. It held federal deposits and helped manage the national currency. economy / politics ●●●

1816 Founding of the Zulu Kingdom 0 cit. Shaka reorganized the Zulu into a formidable military kingdom in southern Africa. His reforms reshaped the region during a period of upheaval. politics / war ●●●●

c. 1816 Shaka builds the Zulu kingdom 0 cit. Shaka kaSenzangakhona took leadership of the small Zulu chiefdom and transformed it through military innovation, including the short stabbing spear and new regimental system, into a powerful centralized kingdom. His campaigns absorbed and displaced neighboring chiefdoms across the region. Shaka's rise is central to the wider period of upheaval known as the Mfecane. politics / war ●●●

9 July 1816 San Martin and Argentina's declaration of independence 0 cit. The United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata declared independence from Spain, a movement in which Jose de San Martin became the leading general. San Martin then led armies across the Andes to carry the fight into Chile and Peru. He and Bolivar together freed the southern and northern halves of Spanish South America. politics / war ●●

1817 San Martin crosses the Andes 0 cit. Jose de San Martin leads an army over the high Andes to surprise and defeat royalist forces in Chile, securing its independence. He then mounts a seaborne campaign against Peru, the stronghold of Spanish power, and declares its independence in 1821. His southern campaign complements Simon Bolivar's advance from the north. politics / war ●●●

c. September 1818 Ottoman-Egyptian Destruction of Diriyah 0 cit. An Egyptian army sent by the Ottoman viceroy Muhammad Ali, led by Ibrahim Pasha, captured and razed Diriyah. The campaign ended the First Saudi State and executed its leaders. politics / war ●●●●

22 February 1819 Adams-Onis Treaty 0 cit. Treaty in which Spain ceded Florida to the United States and the two powers fixed a boundary across North America to the Pacific. It defined the western limits of the Louisiana Purchase. diplomacy / politics ●●●

16 August 1819 The Peterloo Massacre 0 cit. Cavalry charged a large peaceful crowd calling for political reform at St Peter's Field, killing and injuring many. The event became a symbol of the demand for the vote and workers' rights. politics / society ●●●●

16 August 1819 Peterloo Massacre pressures England toward police reform 0 cit. Local yeomanry cavalry charged into a crowd of roughly 60,000 gathered peacefully in Manchester to demand parliamentary reform, killing at least 18 people and injuring hundreds. The lack of a professional, disciplined police force capable of controlling crowds without cavalry became part of the case reformers made for a dedicated civil police. The massacre remains one of the most notorious instances of British authorities using military force against civilians. politics ●●

7 August 1819 Battle of Boyaca secures the north 0 cit. Bolivar's victory at Boyaca broke Spanish power in New Granada and made possible the republic of Gran Colombia. It was a turning point in the northern independence campaign. The win opened the road to liberating the rest of the region. politics / war ●●

7 August 1819 Bolivar's northern campaign and Boyaca 0 cit. Simon Bolivar's victory at the Battle of Boyaca breaks Spanish power in New Granada and clears the way for the liberation of the north. Bolivar founds the union of Gran Colombia, joining present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama, as a base for further campaigns. He is celebrated across the region as the Liberator. politics / war ●●●

25 February 1819 Dartmouth College defines the corporation as an artificial legal being 3 cit. In Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward, the U.S. Supreme Court described the corporation as an artificial being existing only in contemplation of law. That is the real legal fiction behind corporate personhood: the law can recognize organizations as juridical persons for property, contract, liability, and litigation. It does not mean every human has a hidden corporate double. economy / politics ●●●●●

c. January 1820 General Maritime Treaty of 1820 0 cit. Britain imposed a treaty on the Arab sheikhdoms of the lower Gulf to suppress piracy and the maritime slave trade. The agreement began British involvement in what became known as the Trucial Coast. economy / politics ●●●

c. 1820 British opium floods Qing China 0 cit. British-run Indian opium pours into China through Canton in defiance of Qing bans, sold by private traders who bought it at Company auctions. Silver drained out of China to pay for the drug, and addiction spread through the coastal cities, setting up a collision between London's balance sheet and Beijing's law. economy / politics ●●

March 1821 to September 1829 Greek War of Independence 0 cit. Greeks revolt against four centuries of Ottoman rule, eventually winning independence with British, French, and Russian intervention at Navarino. It is the first successful national independence movement against the Ottomans. politics / war ●●●●

1821 Britain adopts the classical gold standard 0 cit. Britain formally tied the pound to a fixed quantity of gold and made banknotes redeemable in gold coin. This anchored the currency and set the pattern other nations would follow. economy / politics ●●●●

5 May 1821 Death of Napoleon 0 cit. Napoleon died in exile on Saint Helena on 5 May 1821, closing the life of one of history's most influential military and political figures. politics ●●●●

27 September 1821 Mexico achieves independence from Spain 0 cit. After eleven years of war, Mexico won independence from Spain as royalist and rebel factions united behind the Plan of Iguala. The long conflict had begun with Hidalgo and continued through leaders like Morelos. Independence ended three centuries of Spanish colonial rule. politics / war ●●

7 September 1822 Brazil declares independence from Portugal 0 cit. Pedro, heir to the Portuguese throne, declared Brazil independent and became its emperor. Unlike Spanish America, Brazil's break was relatively peaceful and kept a monarchy. It became the only large American nation to gain independence as an empire rather than a republic. politics / society ●●

7 September 1822 Brazil's peaceful independence 0 cit. Rather than break away through war, Brazil becomes independent when Pedro, the heir to the Portuguese throne then resident in Brazil, declares it a separate empire and is crowned its emperor. The result is a relatively bloodless split and, unusually for the Americas, a monarchy that lasts until 1889. Slavery, however, continued for decades after independence. politics ●●

July 1822 The meeting at Guayaquil 0 cit. The two great liberators, Bolivar from the north and San Martin from the south, meet privately at Guayaquil to settle the future of the independence struggle. What passed between them is not recorded, but soon afterward San Martin withdraws from public life and leaves the final campaign to Bolivar's forces. The meeting remains one of the most debated moments of the era. diplomacy / politics ●

7 September 1822 Brazilian independence 0 cit. Pedro, the prince regent left in Brazil, breaks with Lisbon and declares the country independent, becoming its first emperor. Portugal lost its largest and richest colony and, with it, the core of the Atlantic empire built over three centuries. politics ●●●

2 December 1823 The Monroe Doctrine 0 cit. In his annual message President James Monroe warned European powers against new colonies in the Americas. The doctrine became a lasting basis for US influence over the hemisphere. politics / war ●●●●

c. 1824 Founding of the Second Saudi State 0 cit. Turki ibn Abdullah recaptured Riyadh and re-established Saudi rule in Najd. Riyadh became the capital of a revived but smaller Saudi state. politics ●●●

1824 Parliament repeals the Combination Acts 0 cit. Workers regained the legal right to form unions when the Combination Acts were repealed. A wave of union activity followed, though the law was tightened again the next year. politics / society ●●●

9 December 1824 Battle of Ayacucho ends Spanish rule in South America 0 cit. Forces under Antonio Jose de Sucre defeated the main Spanish army in the highlands of Peru. The victory effectively ended Spanish colonial rule on the South American mainland. It completed the independence wars begun more than a decade earlier. politics / war ●●●

9 December 1824 The Battle of Ayacucho 0 cit. Forces under Bolivar's general Antonio Jose de Sucre defeat the main royalist army in the highlands of Peru. The victory effectively ends Spanish rule in South America and secures the independence of Peru and the new republic of Bolivia. It closes nearly two decades of continental warfare. politics / war ●●●

26 December 1825 Decembrist Revolt 0 cit. A group of reform-minded army officers staged an uprising demanding a constitution during the disputed succession to the throne. The revolt was quickly crushed by Nicholas I, and its leaders were executed or exiled. politics / society ●●●

17 June 1825 Bunker Hill Monument Cornerstone Laid 0 cit. The Marquis de Lafayette, a Freemason and hero of the American Revolution, laid the cornerstone of the Bunker Hill Monument on the fiftieth anniversary of the battle. Daniel Webster, also a Mason, gave the dedication address to a huge crowd. The ceremony followed Masonic ritual under the Grand Lodge of Massachusetts. The monument, a granite obelisk, took nearly two decades to finish because of funding troubles. culture / politics ●●

11 September 1826 The Morgan affair 0 cit. William Morgan, a New York man who threatened to publish masonic secrets, was abducted in 1826 and never seen again. The scandal and suspicion of a cover-up triggered a wave of anti-masonic feeling. politics / religion / society ●●●●

c. 1826 Freemason World Domination Myth unproven 0 cit. Claims that Freemasons secretly control governments and finance recur from the anti-Masonic movement of the 1800s to the present. Freemasonry is a real fraternal order, but the idea of a Masonic plot to rule the world is unproven conspiracy theory. politics / society ●●