Events, Verisoph

1918 Crowley reports contact with Amalantrah ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On February 24, 1918 at 9:30 PM, Crowley reported communicating with an intelligence claiming the name Amalantrah. He asked this entity questions about Qabalistic interpretations of Greek words, attempting to understand mystical meanings. ●●

15 May 1919 to 11 October 1922 Greco-Turkish War wikidata 0 cit. no story war lasting from 1919 to 1922 during the Turkish War of Independence ●●●●

28 July 1919 Founding of the International Astronomical Union 0 cit. no story Astronomers found the IAU at a constitutive assembly in Brussels to coordinate astronomy worldwide. It is the recognized authority for naming celestial bodies. diplomacy / science ●●

19 August 1919 Independence of Afghanistan 0 cit. no story After the Third Anglo-Afghan War, Britain recognizes Afghanistan's full independence in foreign affairs under the Treaty of Rawalpindi. politics / war ●●●

21 January 1919 to 11 July 1921 Irish War of Independence 0 cit. no story The IRA fights a guerrilla war against British rule. The truce leads to the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the Irish Free State, with the island partitioned. politics / war ●●●

19 May 1919 to 24 July 1923 Turkish War of Independence 0 cit. no story Mustafa Kemal leads Turkish nationalists against Greek, French, and Armenian forces and the Allied partition of Anatolia. Victory overturns the Treaty of Sevres and creates the Republic of Turkey. politics / war ●●●●

1919 Norman and Morgan atop the financial world, 1919-1931 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley argues that the international bankers reached their zenith in 1919-1931, when Montagu Norman and J. P. Morgan dominated finance, international relations, and much else. ●●

1919 Founding of Chatham House and its US counterpart, 1919 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley says the Milner group founded the Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House) in 1919, financed chiefly by Abe Bailey and the Astors, with a sister body in the US, the Council on Foreign Relations. ●●

1919 Government of India Act of 1919 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Montagu-Chelmsford report was drafted into a bill, revised by a Joint Committee under Lord Selborne, and became the Government of India Act of 1919, the most important Indian constitutional law before 1935. ●●

1919 Rowlatt Act passed (March 1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The conservative group pushed through the Rowlatt Act in March 1919, continuing wartime restrictions on civil liberties to control nationalist agitation, prompting Gandhi to call for civil disobedience. ●●

1919 Amritsar Massacre (April 13, 1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story General Dyer fired into a dense, penned-in crowd at Amritsar, inflicting 1,516 casualties including 379 deaths, an atrocity the Hunter Committee declined to fully condemn. ●●

1919 Postwar blockade blamed for 800,000 deaths (1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley cites Max Sering that the blockade of Germany, continued for nine months after the armistice, caused the deaths of 800,000 persons. ●●

1919 Council of Four drafts the Treaty of Versailles (1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Council of Four (Lloyd George, Wilson, Clemenceau, Orlando) held over two hundred meetings from March to June 1919 and put the Treaty of Versailles into form in three weeks. ●●

1919 Treaty of Versailles signed at the Hall of Mirrors (June 28, 1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On June 28, 1919, five years after Sarajevo, the Treaty of Versailles was signed in the Hall of Mirrors, where the German Empire had been proclaimed in 1871, by all delegations except the Chinese. ●●

1919 France drafts a strong League with its own army (1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the first League committee meeting in 1919 France sought a League with its own army, general staff, and police powers against aggressors, a proposal the Anglo-Americans rejected as militarism. ●●

1919 Third (Communist) International formed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The anti-nationalist minority of Socialists, chiefly Germans and Russians, became the nucleus of the Third, or Communist, International, formed under Russian leadership in 1919. ●●

1919 Weimar constitution drafted ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The National Assembly elected on June 19, 1919, drew up a parliamentary constitution under Professor Hugo Preuss, providing a president, a bicameral legislature, and a cabinet responsible to the lower house. ●●

1919 German Workers' Party founded ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The German Workers' Party was founded by Munich locksmith Anton Drexler on January 5, 1919, as a nationalist, Pan-German workers' group. Hitler joined it later that year. ●●

1919 Brand serves as a financial adviser at the Paris Peace Conference ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, R. H. Brand was financial adviser to Lord Robert Cecil, chairman of the Supreme Economic Council. Quigley presents him as a central figure in postwar international finance. ●●

1919 Curtis a chief founder of the Royal Institute of International Affairs ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley credits Curtis as one of the chief founders of the Royal Institute of International Affairs in 1919. Through the 1920s Curtis worked on it and the League without attracting public attention. ●●

1919 Dawson quarrels with Northcliffe and leaves The Times ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1919 Dawson quarreled with proprietor Lord Northcliffe and left the editor's chair. Quigley says the episode showed the group it could not control The Times without owning it. ●●

1919 Commons motion for subordinate legislatures (4 June 1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 4 June 1919 Edward Wood moved in the Commons that the time had come to create subordinate legislatures within the United Kingdom, carried 187 to 34. Quigley says nothing came of it. ●●

1919 Ministry of Health established (1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley credits Milner's wartime reconstruction committee with producing the Ministry of Health, set up in 1919. He treats it as one of the Group's lasting marks on British social policy. ●●

1919 RIIA organized at the Hotel Majestic (30 May 1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Institute was organized at a joint conference of British and American experts at the Hotel Majestic on 30 May 1919, during the Paris Peace Conference. Quigley says the real decisions were made by the Milner Group. ●●

1919 Quigley: Council on Foreign Relations taken over by the Morgan group (1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts the New York Council on Foreign Relations, RIIA's American branch, was taken over almost entirely after its 1919 founding by the Peace Conference experts closest to J. P. Morgan and Company. ●●

1919 Government of India Act becomes law (December 1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After heavy criticism and revision, the Government of India Bill emerged with its main outlines unchanged and became law in December 1919. Quigley says its principles of dyarchy and responsibility were Curtis's. ●●

1919 Draft Treaty of Versailles presented to Germany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The original draft treaty was handed to the German delegates, who were aghast at its severity and drew up a 443-page criticism. Concessions were later made under pressure Quigley traces back to the Milner Group. ●●

1919 Quigley: Milner Group's appeasement began in 1919 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that the Cliveden Set was only the visible face of the Milner Group, and that the Group's program of appeasement and treaty revision began as early as 1919, not the mid-1930s. ●●

1919 Quigley: Cecil Hurst drafts loopholes into the Covenant ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that at the Peace Conference Cecil Hurst persuaded the American expert David Hunter Miller to replace the sanction articles 10-16 with Hurst's own drafts, deliberately built with loopholes so sanctions need never bite. ●●

1919 Term 'technocracy' first used publicly by W.H. Smythe ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The word technocracy was first used publicly by W.H. Smythe in a 1919 article titled Industrial Management. ●●

1919 Veblen helps found the New School ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Economist Thorstein Veblen helped found the New School for Social Research in 1919. It was there he met Howard Scott, later leader of the U.S. Technocracy movement. ●●

1919 Veblen and Scott start the Technical Alliance ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1919 Thorstein Veblen and Howard Scott formed the Technical Alliance to organize a 'soviet of technicians'. Wood calls it a precursor to the Technocracy movement. ●●

1919 Calhoun's Social History of the Family ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites Arthur Calhoun's 1919 Social History of the Family, which announced that the child was passing from its family into the custody of community experts. ●●

1919 Cubberley publishes 'Public Education in the United States' ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Gatto uses Ellwood P. Cubberley's celebratory history, first published in 1919 and revised in 1934, as an insider source on the compulsion campaign. He argues it reveals more than Cubberley intended. ●●

1919 Wave of anti-Bolshevik education laws, 1919 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that by 1919 many states passed laws against Bolshevism, including English-only instruction and criminal penalties in Idaho and Utah for skipping Americanization classes. ●●

1919 John Dewey founds the Progressive Education Association, 1919 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that in 1919, using Rockefeller money, John Dewey founded the Progressive Education Association while a professor at Columbia Teachers College. ●●

1919 Royal Institute of International Affairs founded ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book asserts, following Quigley, that the Network formed the Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House) in 1919 as a front group. It says similar institutes followed in British dominions and the United States. ●●

1919 US Senate rejects the League of Nations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book says that in November 1919, after months of debate, the US Senate voted not to join the League of Nations over concerns about ceding sovereignty. It calls this the point where the Network's League effort came up short. ●●

1919 Milner Group begins undermining the peace settlement ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book cites Quigley that the Milner Group began a program of appeasement and revision of the post-war settlement as early as 1919. It presents this as a deliberate move to rebuild Germany. ●●

1919 The Paris Peace Conference opens ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Paris Peace Conference opened in January 1919 to settle the terms of peace. No issue caused more trouble and delay than German reparations. ●●

1919 Versailles terms unveiled to Germany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In May 1919 the peace terms were presented to Germany, which was to lose an eighth of its territory, disarm, and pay reparations. Article 231, the 'article of shame,' branded Germany solely responsible for the war. ●●

1919 US Senate rejects the Treaty of Versailles ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As America turned isolationist, the peace treaty failed in the Senate. On 19 November 1919 it was rejected by a vote of 55 to 39, keeping the United States out of the postwar European settlement. ●●

1919 Keynes begins speculating on currencies ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the latter half of 1919, Keynes bet that wartime inflation would undermine belligerent currencies. He went short on the French franc, German Reichsmark, and Italian lira while buying currencies of countries that had sat out the war. ●●

1919 Senator Edge introduces the Edge Act ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Based on Lamont’s earlier disposition toward private assistance, Senator Walter Evans Edge introduced Senate Bill 2472 (which became the Edge Act of 1919), authorizing American... ●●

1919 Paris Peace Conference opens ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In all, thirty-two nations were involved in the Paris Peace Conference, which began in January 1919 (Germany was not included). But the Big Four—President Wilson, British prime... ●●

1919 Mackenzie King elected Canadian Liberal leader ai_extracted 2 cit. no story In 1919, he was elected leader of the Liberal Party in Canada and two years later became prime minister, serving in that post off and on for a record twenty-two years and forging much of the modern Canadian welfare state. ●●

1919 Hamburg City Council elected in free, secret elections ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The revolutionaries made little headway with the food and fuel shortages and the growing ranks of jobless workers. On March 26, 1919, the City Council—henceforth to be elected in free, secret election... ●●

1919 Germany signs the Treaty of Versailles ai_extracted 1 cit. no story He said he thought it best if the government had advisers who were in agreement with its policies. The new Cabinet consented to the Allied terms, and on June 28, 1919, a new German delegation signed t... ●●

1919 Weimar Assembly adopts the German constitution ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Of the one hundred billion mark offer, he said, “Well, they are not getting even that now. They have surprises awaiting them.”30 On July 31, 1919, the Weimar Assembly adopted a constitution. ●●

1919 Woodrow Wilson proposes the League of Nations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Woodrow Wilson brings a vision of liberal world order to the post-World War I settlement, anchored in the League of Nations proposal ●●

1919 Soviet Bureau established in New York ai_extracted 2 cit. no story The Soviet Bureau is established in early 1919 in the World Tower Building at 110 West 40th Street, New York City, to represent Soviet interests in the United States. ●●

1919 State Department blocks Soviet Bureau business dealings ai_extracted 2 cit. no story On May 7, 1919, the State Department intervenes to prevent continued business intervention on behalf of the Soviet Bureau by American firms. ●●

1919 Congressman Mason introduces House Resolution 132 ai_extracted 2 cit. no story On June 23, 1919, Congressman Mason introduces House Resolution 132 instructing the State Department to investigate Wall Street banking connections to the Bolsheviks. ●●

1919 Charles Fort publishes The Book of the Damned ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Paranormal researcher Charles Fort published his first book, The Book of the Damned, cataloguing reports of strange anomalies from newspapers worldwide including floating airships, frogs falling from the sky, and spontaneous combustion, to challenge scientific materialism and orthodoxy. ●●

1919 Russo-Polish War ends in Russian defeat ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Russo-Polish War of 1919-1920 ended with a Russian defeat, demonstrating weakened Russian military capacity after the civil war. ●●

1919 Wilson presents League Covenant to Peace Conference ai_extracted 1 cit. no story y such attitudes would resolve crises without war, Wilson told the Peace Conference on February 14, 1919: …throughout this instrument [the League Cove ●●

1919 Bela Kun establishes Hungarian Soviet Republic ai_extracted 1 cit. no story when Lenin’s Hungarian protégé Bela Kun and his Communist and Social Democratic followers established a shortlived Soviet republic in Hungary in the disordered aftermath of Austro-Hungarian defeat, Szilard decided it was time to study abroad. ●●

1919 Greek-Turkish War and population exchange in Asia Minor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Thus the mixed Greek and Turkish populations in Asia Minor and the eastern Aegean who had lived side by side since the time of the Byzantine Empire sorted themselves out during the Greek-Turkish War of 1919–1922. ●●

1919 Ho Chi Minh appeals to US over French Indochina ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1919, following the First World War, Ho Chi Minh had appealed to US Secretary of State Robert Lansing for America’s help in achieving basic civil liberties and an improvement in the living conditions for the colonial subjects of French Indochina ●●

1919 France gains control of the Saar coal and chemical industries ai_extracted 1 cit. no story French capitalists secured control of the Saar's coal and chemical industries as a reparations prize after the First World War, only for a later plebiscite to return the territory to Germany. ●●

1920 Japan's population surges, 1920-1960 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As the demographic explosion reached Asia, Japan's population climbed from 55 million in 1920 to 94 million by 1960. ●●

1920 Period of Chinese warlordism (1920-1941) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley identifies a period of 'warlordism' from 1920 to 1941, when independent army chiefs controlled the interior by exploiting the peasantry while the Republican government held only the coast and river valleys. ●●

1920 San Remo conference sets Middle East mandates (April 1920) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At San Remo in April 1920 the Great Powers set up four mandates: Syria and Lebanon to France, Iraq and Palestine including Transjordan to Britain, over Arab objections. ●●

1920 Bela Kun's Red terror and Horthy's rise in Hungary (1920) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After Bela Kun's six-month Red terror and flight before a Romanian invasion, reactionaries took power in Hungary with Admiral Horthy as regent and Count Bethlen as prime minister. ●●

1920 United States leaves the victorious coalition (1920) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley notes the United States left the wartime coalition following the Republican victory over Wilson in the 1918 congressional and 1920 presidential elections, weakening treaty enforcement. ●●

1920 United States becomes the world's greatest creditor (1920) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The war changed the United States from a debtor owing about 3 billion dollars to a creditor owed 4 billion, plus about 10 billion in intergovernmental war debts, displacing Britain financially. ●●

1920 Quigley: Montagu Norman as head of world banking control (1920-1944) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley presents Montagu Norman, governor of the Bank of England for an unprecedented 24 years from 1920 to 1944, as the commander-in-chief of the world banking system and architect of Britain's decline. ●●

1920 Kapp Putsch ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In March 1920 Captain Ehrhardt's Free Corps brigade marched into Berlin, forced the government to flee to Dresden, and set up a government under the ultra-nationalist Wolfgang Kapp. It collapsed under a general strike. ●●

1920 Emergency Powers Act of 1920 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Conservatives passed the Emergency Powers Act of 1920, which for the first time in English history let a peacetime government proclaim a state of siege, used in 1920, 1921, and 1926. ●●

1920 Founding of the Chinese Communist Party, 1920 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley records that Mao, then working at the Peking University library, was in 1920 one of the eleven original founders of the Chinese Communist Party. ●●

1920 Peace Handbooks published (1920) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1920 the Foreign Office published 155 volumes of reports as the Peace Handbooks, prepared for the Paris Peace Conference. Quigley says many of the expert authors were from the Cecil Bloc and Milner Group. ●●

1920 Government of Ireland Act (December 1920) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Government of Ireland Act of December 1920, drafted by H. A. L. Fisher, enacted a settlement along lines urged by The Round Table. Quigley calls the Irish settlement largely a Milner Group achievement. ●●

1920 D'Abernon urges building Germany against the Soviets ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Lord D'Abernon, soon to be British Ambassador in Berlin, argued in a letter to Hankey that Germany should be built up as a military bulwark against the Soviet Union. Quigley presents his policy as nearly identical with the Milner Group's. ●●

1920 Goddard's Human Efficiency ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites H.H. Goddard's 1920 book Human Efficiency, which described government schooling as the perfect organization of the hive and standardized testing as a way to make lower classes accept inferiority. ●●

1920 George Bernard Shaw states the Fabian use of force ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto quotes Fabian George Bernard Shaw, who in 1920 wrote that under a future Fabian government you would be forcibly fed, clothed, taught, and employed, and might even be executed in a kindly manner for lacking character and industry. ●●

1920 Bertrand Russell takes a chair at the University of Peking, 1920 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that in 1920 Bertrand Russell assumed a professorship at the University of Peking, part of Western intellectuals' involvement in shaping China. ●●

1920 North Schleswig returns to Denmark by plebiscite ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the First World War, a 1920 plebiscite returned the northern parts of Schleswig to Denmark. This included the area from which the Schacht family had come. ●●

1920 Norman becomes governor of the Bank of England ai_extracted 1 cit. no story While Strong traveled the world recovering his health, Montagu Norman was elevated to the governorship of the Bank of England in 1920. It marked the start of a true partnership between the two central bankers. ●●

1920 Bank of England chooses deflation in 1920 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1920, unlike other European countries, the Bank of England chose the path of deflation, matching the Fed by raising interest rates to 7 percent. The economy plunged into recession and two million men lost their jobs. ●●

1920 Anarchist bomb outside J. P. Morgan & Co. ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In July 1920 anarchists placed a bomb outside J. P. Morgan & Co. at 23 Wall Street, a sign of the firm's stature as a power to be reckoned with. Thirty-eight bystanders were killed and about four hundred injured. ●●

1920 France caps the Banque de France note circulation ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Reasserting its postwar independence, the Banque de France refused to keep financing the state. In April 1919 the National Assembly limited its advances, and in September 1920 imposed a 41 billion franc ceiling on note circulation. ●●

1920 Voters reject Wilson and the League of Nations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On Election Day, November 2, 1920, voters rejected Wilson and his League, as represented by Democratic presidential candidate James A. Cox and vice presidential candidate... ●●

1920 Morgan partners rescue William Durant ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In an overnight rescue session on November 18, 1920, Dwight Morrow and Morgan partners rescued General Motors founder William Durant, who faced $38 million in debts and margin calls. The Morgan bank bought his stock and forced his resignation. ●●

1920 Morgan sponsors General Motors stock offering ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1920, the House of Morgan sponsored a $64 million stock offering to finance General Motors expansion. The bank retained a sizable block and privately placed remaining shares with trusted investors. ●●

1920 Warburgs sell AEG loan issue to the Guggenheims ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Already in 1920, the Warburgs pulled off a big transatlantic deal for the German electrical company, AEG, selling a quarter of its new loan issue to the Guggenheims. ●●

1920 Saxl named acting director of the Warburg Library ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1920, the Warburgs, despairing that Aby would ever emerge from his Swiss asylum, named Saxl the library’s acting director, with Gertrud Bing his deputy. ●●

1920 Gulag system launched in the Soviet Union ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The launching of the Gulag in the early 1920s included the decimation of the prerevolutionary elite and its large-scale exodus from Russia. ●●

1920 France repeals its 1920 anti-contraception law ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Even France finally repealed its 1920 law against contracep- tion, in part because of complaints from elected representatives and govern- ment officials worried about high fertility in the overseas... ●●

1920 US troops land at Vladivostok ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Then 7,000 men were landed in Vladivostok and remained until January 1920, as part of an allied occupation force ●●

1920 Federal Reserve Board triggers 1920 credit contraction ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Under action taken by the Reserve Board on May 18, 1920, there resulted a violent contraction of credit ●●

5 October 1921 Founding of PEN International 0 cit. no story Writer Catharine Amy Dawson Scott founds the first PEN Club at a London dinner, with John Galsworthy as president. It grew into PEN International, the worldwide association of writers defending free expression. culture / diplomacy ●●

June 1921 to May 1926 Rif War 0 cit. no story Abd el-Krim's Rif republic destroys a Spanish army at Annual before France and Spain combine to crush it, using chemical weapons. The war becomes a model for later anti-colonial insurgencies. war ●●

1921 Dominion status for southern Ireland, 1921 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley notes that Lionel Curtis, as Adviser on Irish Affairs, played an important role in granting dominion status to southern Ireland in 1921. ●●

1921 Irish Free State created (December 1921) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Articles of Agreement of December 1921 gave Southern Ireland dominion status as the Irish Free State, with Northern Ireland remaining under the 1920 Act. ●●

1921 Feisal installed as King of Iraq under British protection (1921) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the French expelled Feisal from Syria, Britain set him up as king in Iraq under British protection in 1921 and later placed his brother Abdullah as King of Transjordan. ●●

1921 Treaty of Riga sets Poland's eastern frontier (March 1921) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the Polish-Soviet war, the settlement signed at Riga in March 1921 gave Poland a frontier 150 miles east of the Curzon Line, bringing in a million White Russians and four million Ukrainians. ●●

1921 Full reparations bill of 132 billion marks presented (May 1921) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In May 1921 Germany was presented with the full reparations bill of 132 thousand million gold marks, accepted under a six-day ultimatum threatening occupation of the Ruhr. ●●

1921 Kronstadt mutiny ends War Communism ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Peasant uprisings, urban riots, and the March 1921 mutiny of the sailors at Kronstadt forced the abandonment of War Communism in favor of the New Economic Policy of free commerce and limited private ownership. ●●

1921 Douhet's The Command of the Air published ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley argues that the Combined Bomber Offensive tried to carry out the largely erroneous ideas of Italian general Giulio Douhet, whose 1921 book The Command of the Air claimed air power alone could win wars by breaking civilian morale. He calls the theory almost wholly wrong yet pernicious in its influence. ●●

1921 Douhet's prophecy of air power ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As early as 1921 the Italian general Giulio Douhet preached that the next war would be ended within twenty-four hours by destroying all enemy cities from the air. ●●