Events, Verisoph

1921 Quigley: Council on Foreign Relations as a Morgan front ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that the Council on Foreign Relations, the New York branch of Curtis's Institute of International Affairs, was a front for J. P. Morgan and Company allied with a small American Round Table Group. ●●

1921 Reza Pahlavi seizes control of Iran ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Between 1921 and 1925, the Cossack Brigade officer Reza Pahlavi gradually took over the Iranian government and deposed the young Shah Ahmad. As Reza Shah he pursued modernization on the model of Kemal Ataturk. ●●

1921 Smuts arranges an armistice in Ireland ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1921 Smuts went on a secret mission to Ireland. He arranged an armistice and opened negotiations between Lloyd George and the Irish leaders. ●●

1921 Anglo-Irish armistice (11 July 1921) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After Smuts helped persuade the Irish to negotiate, an armistice went into effect on 11 July 1921 and the conference began three days later. Curtis served as secretary to the conference. ●●

1921 India granted fiscal autonomy (1921) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1921 India was granted fiscal autonomy and at once adopted a protective tariff, to the injury of British textile manufacturing. Quigley lists it among rights the British extended in steady succession. ●●

1921 Kronstadt Commune revolts against Taylorist labor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto reports that the 1921 Kronstadt Commune rebellion charged that the Bolsheviks were planning to introduce Taylor's sweat-labor system. He says the rebels were right. ●●

1921 The London reparations schedule and 'fulfillment' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In May 1921 a conference in London set Germany's reparations bill at about $12.5 billion, with annual payments of $600-800 million. Germany accepted and declared a policy of 'fulfillment,' though it never believed it could pay. ●●

1921 Reza Khan stages coup in Tehran ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On February 20, Reza Khan leads two thousand soldiers into Tehran to arrest the prime minister and cabinet in a swift military coup. ●●

1921 Kronstadt uprising crushed by the Bolsheviks ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In early 1921, the Bolshevik party turned its guns on rebellious sailors and workers in Kronstadt in response to widespread peasant resistance. This prompted Lenin to abandon War Communism and introduce the New Economic Policy. ●●

1921 Soviet famine kills millions after the civil war ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Deaths from hunger and epidemics in 1921-22 nearly equaled the combined toll of World War I and the Soviet civil war. This humanitarian catastrophe followed the Bolshevik requisitioning campaigns. ●●

1921 Frank Knight distinguishes uncertainty from risk ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As Frank Knight argued in 1921, ‘Uncertainty must be taken in a sense radically distinct from the familiar notion of Risk, from which it has never been properly separated . ●●

1921 Harding requires state approval of foreign loans ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On May 25, 1921, President Harding announced that foreign loans must be certified by the State, Treasury, and Commerce departments as being in the national interest. Jack Morgan pledged that bankers would keep the State Department fully informed. ●●

1921 Dempsey-Carpentier fight aids French relief ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Anne Morgan's American Friends for Devastated France co-sponsored the July 1921 championship fight between Jack Dempsey and Georges Carpenter as part of their fundraising efforts to rebuild French villages and support schools, hospitals, and libraries. ●●

1921 Paul Warburg launches the International Acceptance Bank ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In April 1921, Paul, encouraged by Max, launched the International Acceptance Bank in New York. ●●

1921 Soviet crop failure triggers the 1921 famine ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Then, in 1921, Soviet crops failed, a disaster so colossal that the Joint set up soup kitchens there, and even the U.S. ●●

1921 Paulo Freire born in Recife ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Paulo Freire was born in 1921 in Recife, the center of one of the most extreme situations of poverty and underdevelopment in the Third World. His childhood experience of family poverty following the Great Depression profoundly influenced his later educational philosophy. ●●

1921 Einstein sails to America for the first time ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Einstein and Elsa sailed from Holland on March 21, 1921, for their first visit to America. The trip was planned to promote the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and advance the Zionist cause. ●●

1921 Einstein visits the White House and meets Harding ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On April 25, 1921, Einstein visited the White House where President Warren G. Harding confessed he did not understand the theory of relativity. Washington Post ran a cartoon of Harding puzzled over 'Theory of Relativity' while Einstein puzzled over 'Theory of Normalcy.' ●●

2 December 1922 Uqair Protocol of 1922 wikidata 0 cit. no story agreement at Uqair on 2 December 1922 which defined the boundaries between Iraq and the Sultanate of Nejd (modern Saudi Arabia) and between Kuwait and Nejd ●●●

16 April 1922 Treaty of Rapallo wikidata 0 cit. no story 1922 treaty between Germany and Russia ●●●

28 February 1922 Independence of Egypt 0 cit. no story Britain unilaterally declares Egypt independent, ending the protectorate; the 1952 revolution later made Egypt a republic. politics ●●●●

6 December 1922 Independence of Ireland 0 cit. no story The Irish Free State is established under the Anglo-Irish Treaty after the War of Independence, ending British rule in most of Ireland. politics / war ●●●

1922 Revolution on the Rand, 1922 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Attempts to cut mine costs by using more native labor led to strikes and a 1922 armed uprising on the Rand in which over 200 rebels were killed. ●●

1922 Gandhi launches mass civil disobedience (Feb 1, 1922) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On February 1, 1922, Gandhi told the viceroy he would begin mass civil disobedience district by district, starting at Bardoli, escalating beyond non-cooperation into illegal acts. ●●

1922 Germany and Soviet Russia sign Treaty of Rapallo (April 1922) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The two outcast powers drifted together and sealed their friendship with a treaty signed at Rapallo in April 1922, which alarmed western Europe as a potential union of German technology and Soviet resources. ●●

1922 Washington Conference sets naval ratios (1922) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the Washington Conference, Britain gave the United States equality in capital ships at 15 each while Japan received 60 percent, or 9 capital ships, ending the Anglo-Japanese alliance. ●●

1922 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics organized ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Constitutionally, the country was organized in 1922 into the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics. The largest constituent was the Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic. ●●

1922 British protectorate over Egypt ended ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The protectorate over Egypt was ended in 1922, and the Dominions' refusal to back the United Kingdom in the Near East crisis forced a reexamination of imperial relations. ●●

1922 Mussolini comes to power in Italy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley argues leftist gains in 1918-1922 reversed the trend toward wider income disparity, provoking a counterrevolution that brought Mussolini to power in October 1922. ●●

1922 Ignaz Seipel becomes Austrian chancellor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In May 1922 the Christian Socialist leader Monsignor Ignaz Seipel, a Catholic priest, became chancellor, dominating Austria's federal government until his death in 1932 and securing international loans by threatening Anschluss. ●●

1922 Egypt granted independence by Britain ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Britain granted Egypt independence in 1922 but continued to interfere in its governance through peremptory notes and ultimatums. Submission to such pressure roused animosity in the nationalist-dominated Assembly. ●●

1922 The Astors buy control of The Times ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley says Lord Astor and his brother became chief proprietors of The Times in 1922 by buying out the Harmsworth interest. He treats this as the moment the Milner Group secured ownership of the paper. ●●

1922 Quigley: the Milner Group controlled The Times (from 1922) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that the Milner Group controlled The Times, indirectly from 1912 and directly from 1922. He treats the paper as one branch of the Group's network of influence. ●●

1922 Zimmern's Europe in Convalescence (1922) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Alfred Zimmern published Europe in Convalescence in 1922, regretting Britain's postwar policies and especially the 1918 election. Quigley uses it to show the Group's turn toward reconstructing Germany. ●●

1922 Irish Free State created (1922) ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Through the Articles of Agreement of December 1921 and the Irish Free State Act of March 1922, southern Ireland became an independent Dominion. Feetham of the Milner Group chaired the Boundary Commission. ●●

1922 Oregon outlaws private elementary schools, 1922 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto reports that in 1922 Oregon outlawed private schools for elementary children, a law later reversed by the Supreme Court in Pierce v. Society of Sisters (1925). ●●

1922 Walter Lippmann publishes Public Opinion ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Gatto cites Walter Lippmann's 1922 book Public Opinion, which he says called for restricting public debate and letting experts govern. He argues Lippmann wanted schools to teach that active citizenship was impossible. ●●

1922 Assassination of Walther Rathenau ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 24 June 1922 Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau, architect of the fulfillment policy, was murdered by right-wing reactionaries. His killing deepened the panic that sent the mark into free fall. ●●

1922 The Balfour Note links war debts to reparations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In mid-1922 Britain declared through the Balfour Note that it would collect from its debtors and from Germany only as much as the United States demanded of Britain. The note infuriated Americans, who were cast as 'Uncle Shylock.' ●●

1922 Fall of Lloyd George and the Bonar Law government ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Lloyd George's coalition collapsed in October 1922 and a Conservative government under Andrew Bonar Law took power in Britain. Stanley Baldwin became chancellor of the exchequer. ●●

1922 British delegation sails to settle war debts with America ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Baldwin led a British delegation, with Bank of England governor Montagu Norman as principal adviser, to negotiate a settlement of Britain's war debts to the United States. They sailed on December 30 aboard the Majestic. ●●

1922 Genoa Economic Conference and Norman's idea of a central bankers' league ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the 1922 Genoa Economic Conference, Norman floated the idea of a grand conclave of central bankers to stabilize European finances. Strong resisted, fearing the United States would be ambushed by its European debtors. ●●

1922 Strong invents the modern central banker ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By abandoning the automatic rules of the gold standard and steering credit to stabilize domestic prices and business activity, Strong pioneered modern central banking. In 1922 this was a radical departure from centuries of practice. ●●

1922 Harding names Hoover to War Debt Commission ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In February 1922, Harding appointed Hoover to the new World War Foreign Debt Commission, designed to settle the Allies’ debts based on “their capacity to pay.” The total debt... ●●

1922 Lamont negotiates Mexican debt agreement ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1922, Tom Lamont negotiated an agreement with Mexican finance minister de la Huerta that secured U.S. recognition for President Obregón in exchange for steep concessions including lower interest rates and a forty-five year payment schedule. ●●

1922 US banks reach their peak number ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The United States reached its maximum number of national and state-chartered banks during the era of free banking. ●●

1922 Laura Spelman Memorial funds social sciences research ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1922, under director Beardsley Ruml, the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial began distributing nearly fifty million dollars into social sciences research. This funding catalyzed university research centers. ●●

1922 Jimmy de Rothschild inherits Waddesdon Manor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Jimmy de Rothschild unexpectedly inherited the historic Waddesdon Manor in 1922 after the death of his cousin Ferdinand's unmarried sister Alice. ●●

1922 Agro-Joint agreement with Soviets for Jewish colonies ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1922, he worked out an agreement with the Soviets to create loan co-ops and training schools for Jews and began to advocate an enormous colonization project. ●●

1922 Hoover pushes for US trade with Soviet Russia ai_extracted 2 cit. no story In January 1922, Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover intercedes with the State Department on behalf of American business interests seeking to trade with Soviet Russia. ●●

1922 Bohr explains atomic basis of the periodic table ai_extracted 1 cit. no story the year his Nobel Prize made him a Danish national hero, Bohr accomplished a second great theoretical triumph: an explanation of the atomic structure that underlies the regularities of the periodic table of the elements. ●●

1922 Assassination of Walther Rathenau ai_extracted 1 cit. no story right-wing extremists gunned down Walther Rathenau, the Weimar Republic’s first Foreign Minister, a physical chemist and industrialist friend of Einstein and a highly visible Jew. ●●

1922 Hallervorden and Spatz identify rare brain disease ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ause why anyone would ever nominate him in the first place.” Museum officials added they would immediately look into removing his name.26 Another case involved Nazi doctors Hallervorden and Spatz. In 1922, the two had successfully identified a rare and devastating brain disease caused by a genetic m ●●

23 March 1923 Halibut Treaty wikidata 0 cit. no story 1923 Canadian, American agreement concerning fishing rights in the northern Pacific Ocean ●●●

7 September 1923 Founding of Interpol 0 cit. no story Police officials from 20 countries found the International Criminal Police Commission in Vienna to coordinate cross-border crime fighting. Rebuilt after the Second World War, it became Interpol, based in Lyon. diplomacy / politics / society ●●●

29 October 1923 Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey 0 cit. no story Mustafa Kemal Ataturk proclaims the Republic of Turkey after the War of Independence, succeeding the Ottoman Empire. politics / war ●●●●

1923 Kenya White Paper, 1923 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The controversy over Kenya's Legislative Council produced the compromise of the 1923 Kenya White Paper and the appointment of Sir Edward Grigg as governor for 1925-1931. ●●

1923 German hyperinflation ruins the middle classes (1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley notes the final stages of inflation that destroyed the German middle classes came after the war, in 1923, directing their hatred against the postwar parliamentary government. ●●

1923 Treaty of Lausanne formally ends WWI (July 24, 1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the Treaty of Sevres collapsed, a moderate negotiated treaty signed by the Kemalist government at Lausanne on July 24, 1923, formally ended the First World War and ended four centuries of Turkish decline. ●●

1923 Franco-Belgian occupation of the Ruhr (January 1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 9, 1923, the Reparations Commission declared Germany in default, and French, Belgian, and Italian forces began occupying the Ruhr two days later, met by German passive resistance. ●●

1923 German mark collapses in hyperinflation (1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The German mark fell from 80,000 to the pound in January 1923 to 20 million in August and 20 billion by December 1923, an inflation Quigley attributes to Germany's method of avoiding reparations. ●●

1923 Beer-Hall Putsch ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the Beer-Hall Putsch of November 8, 1923, Hitler and Ludendorff tried to force Kahr and Lossow to continue a revolt. They were overcome by gunfire; Hitler was jailed and wrote Mein Kampf. ●●

1923 Primo de Rivera's military coup in Spain ai_extracted 1 cit. no story To block a parliamentary investigation into corruption and defeats in Morocco, a military coup under General Primo de Rivera, with King Alfonso XIII's acquiescence, took over the government in 1923, dissolving the Cortes and ending civil liberties. ●●

1923 Quigley links the post-1923 Conservative split to Milner-Cecil lines ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley suggests the split inside the Conservative Party after 1923 followed the division between the Milner Group and the older Cecil Bloc. He offers it as an interpretive claim. ●●

1923 Milner's Questions of the Hour (1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Milner set out unorthodox economic ideas in his 1923 book Questions of the Hour. Quigley says these ideas, favoring managed national economy over the gold standard, were far ahead of the Group's thinking. ●●

1923 Milner's Lords speech on Zionism (27 June 1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 27 June 1923 Milner set out the Group's view of Zionism in the House of Lords, backing a Jewish national home but insisting Palestine must never become a Jewish state. He favored an Arab Federation. ●●

1923 Chatham House acquired and named (1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1923 Curtis persuaded Colonel R. W. Leonard to buy Lord Kinnaird's house at 10 St. James Square for the Institute. Once William Pitt's home, it was named Chatham House, now a byword for the RIIA. ●●

1923 Quigley: Milner Group helps make Baldwin Prime Minister ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts the Milner Group worked behind the scenes to persuade the King to choose Baldwin over Curzon as Prime Minister in 1923, citing Harold Nicolson's account of Balfour, Amery, and Walter Long intervening. ●●

1923 Quigley: Curtis defends the balance of power at the RUA ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that Lionel Curtis, who in 1918 had condemned the balance of power, reversed himself by January 1923 and defended it against Professor Pollard, marking the Group's return to old power-politics thinking. ●●

1923 Smuts's South African Luncheon Club speech ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley calls this October 1923 speech in London the best single statement of the Milner Group's early revisionist and pro-German outlook, in which Smuts warned against French militarism. ●●

1923 France occupies the Ruhr ai_extracted 1 cit. no story French forces occupied the Ruhr to force reparations payments, enraging the Milner Group, which Quigley says threatened economic and diplomatic retaliation against France in The Round Table. ●●

1923 Quigley: Smuts opens contact with Stresemann ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that right after his October 1923 anti-French speech, Smuts got in touch with German foreign minister Stresemann, advising him to abandon non-cooperation, a line that Quigley says led toward the Dawes Plan and Locarno. ●●

1923 German Chancellor cites Smuts as his guide ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At a cabinet meeting Stresemann named Smuts as the author of what he considered the proper road out of the reparations crisis, evidence Quigley uses for the Group's reach into German policy. ●●

1923 Carl Brigham asserts Nordic superiority, 1923 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto quotes psychologist Carl Brigham, who in his 1923 book A Study of American Intelligence claimed to have demonstrated the intellectual superiority of the Nordic group. ●●

1923 E.G. Boring's circular definition of intelligence, 1923 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites E.G. Boring's 1923 definition that intelligence is what an intelligence test measures, as the classic behaviorist statement on intelligence. ●●

1923 Milner's desire to abandon the gold standard ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book says Lord Milner, described as the Network's primary leader, had written of wanting to abandon the gold standard as early as 1923. It uses this to argue the shift off gold served the Network rather than harming it. ●●

1923 French and Belgian troops occupy the Ruhr ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In early 1923, after Germany fell behind on reparations, forty thousand French and Belgian troops invaded and occupied the industrial Ruhr valley. The precipitating incident was a failure to deliver telephone poles. ●●

1923 The German hyperinflation reaches its peak ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1923 Germany suffered the greatest destruction of monetary value in history. A dollar worth 620,000 marks in August was worth 630 billion by early November. ●●

1923 German unemployment explodes as the currency dies ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1923 the collapse of the mark made commerce impossible and the economy reverted to barter. Unemployment, around 3 percent, suddenly jumped to 20 percent in the autumn of 1923. ●●

1923 Fight over control of Fed open market operations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1923 the Federal Reserve Board tried to take charge of open market operations, the new tool of buying and selling government securities. Strong, recuperating in Colorado, was furious but eventually accepted Board oversight while still dominating decisions. ●●

1923 Schacht and Stresemann dine as Germany nears bankruptcy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On the night of November 8, 1923, banker Hjalmar Schacht met Chancellor Gustav Stresemann at Berlin's Hotel Continental. Stresemann sought to persuade Schacht to become currency commissioner and reform the collapsing German currency. ●●

1923 Hyperinflation bread riots in Berlin ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On November 5, 1923, the price of a two-kilo loaf of bread in Germany soared from 20 billion to 140 billion marks, sparking nationwide riots. Over a thousand shops were looted and Jewish Berliners were attacked by mobs. ●●

1923 Hitler's Beer Hall Putsch collapses ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Adolf Hitler, working with General Erich Ludendorff, seized a Munich beer hall and proclaimed the Berlin government deposed. The attempted coup, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, collapsed within twenty-four hours. ●●

1923 Introduction of the Rentenmark ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On November 15, 1923, Germany introduced the new Rentenmark, notionally backed by land, alongside the collapsed Reichsmark. The country briefly had two official currencies issued by two parallel central banks. ●●

1923 Schacht fixes the Rentenmark conversion rate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After waiting for the Reichsmark to sink further, Schacht fixed the conversion rate on November 20, 1923, at 1 trillion Reichsmarks to one Rentenmark. The delay let the government buy back its debt for a fraction of its value. ●●

1923 Death of Rudolf von Havenstein ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On November 20, 1923, the day Schacht fixed the new currency's conversion rate, Reichsbank president Rudolf von Havenstein collapsed and died of a heart attack after a late board meeting. He was sixty-six. ●●

1923 Schacht appointed president of the Reichsbank ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On December 20, 1923, over strong opposition from within the bank, Schacht was appointed president of the Reichsbank. His only rival was the discredited wartime treasury secretary Karl Helfferich. ●●

1923 Schacht meets Norman in London ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Schacht arrived in London on New Year's Eve 1923 to enlist Norman's help for Germany. Norman met him personally at Liverpool Street Station, beginning a close partnership between the two central bankers. ●●

1923 Reparations Commission appoints committees of experts ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On November 30, 1923, the Reparations Commission announced two international committees of experts. The first was to balance the German budget and stabilize the currency, the second to investigate German capital flight. ●●

1923 Dawes committee formed on German reparations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story So in late 1923, at the suggestion of Secretary of State Hughes, he appointed a committee of experts headed by Harding’s old budget director, Charles Dawes, to propose a plan to... ●●

1923 Great Kanto earthquake strikes Japan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 1 September 1923, a huge earthquake (7. ●●

1923 Stettinius shares GE insider information ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1923, Morgan partner Herman Harjes in Paris inquired about buying General Electric shares, and Stettinius hesitantly shared insider information he had gained from his position on GE's board of directors. ●●

1923 Morgan partners aid Japan earthquake relief ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Following a major earthquake in Japan, Morgan partners including Dwight Morrow became involved in relief efforts. Rumors circulated that Japan planned its first bond issue in America since the Russo-Japanese War. ●●

1923 Death of Charles Rothschild ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Charles Rothschild, designated to lead N.M. Rothschild after his father Natty's death, died in 1923 after contracting encephalitis lethargica from the Spanish influenza epidemic. ●●

1923 Stresemann succeeds Cuno as German chancellor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As Germany lurched toward civil war, Cuno fell in August 1923 and was replaced by Max’s hero, Gustav Stresemann, who immediately declared martial law. ●●

1923 Volkischer Beobachter attacks the Warburgs ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On February 22, 1923, the Nazi newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter, attacked Paul, Felix, and Max. ●●

1923 French and Belgian troops occupy the Ruhr ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In January 1923, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr, Germany’s industrial heartland, without consulting th ●●

20 July 1924 Founding of FIDE 0 cit. no story Chess federations meeting in Paris found the Fédération Internationale des Échecs, the world chess federation that governs international competition and awards titles such as grandmaster. culture / diplomacy ●

1924 Treaty of Rome awards Fiume to Italy (January 1924) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The long dispute over Fiume was finally settled by the Treaty of Rome of January 1924, granting the city to Italy while giving Yugoslavia a suburb and a harbor lease. ●●

1924 Dawes Plan restructures reparations (1924) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley describes the Dawes Plan of 1924 as largely a J. P. Morgan production, drawn up by financial experts under Charles G. Dawes, that financed reparations through profitable foreign loans. ●●