Events, Verisoph

August 1985 Washington uses its dues as leverage 0 cit. As the largest single funder of the UN, the United States began withholding part of its assessed dues to force changes, starting with the Kassebaum Amendment demanding weighted voting on budgets. Over the following decades unpaid US arrears ran into the billions. The episodes showed how the biggest contributors could bend the organization through the power of the purse. economy / politics ●●

c. 1985 Resettlement crawls through the 1980s 0 cit. The government sets a target of resettling 162,000 families, but by the end of the 1980s only a fraction of that number has been placed on land. The willing-seller rule means the state can buy mostly what settlers choose to sell, often poorer or scattered farms. Land ownership stays heavily concentrated among white commercial farmers a decade after independence. economy / society ●●

c. 1985 Israel becomes a major arms exporter 0 cit. Israel builds a large defense industry around firms such as Israel Aerospace Industries, Elbit Systems, and Rafael. SIPRI data ranks it for years among the world's top ten arms exporters, selling drones, missiles, radar, and electronics worldwide. Arms exports become a significant part of the economy and a tool of Israeli foreign policy. economy / war ●●

22 September 1985 The Plaza Accord drives the yen sharply higher 0 cit. At the Plaza Hotel in New York, finance officials of the US, Japan, West Germany, France, and Britain agreed to push the dollar down and the yen up. Within about two years the yen roughly doubled in value against the dollar. The strong yen squeezed Japanese exporters and triggered a policy response at home. diplomacy / economy ●●●●

c. 1985 Uhuru returns to the Kenyatta family business empire 3 cit. After Amherst, Uhuru returned to Kenya and worked in business before his rapid move into national politics. Profiles describe interests around tourism, hotels, commercial farming and the wider Kenyatta family corporate network, later including Brookside Dairy. This matters because his public image always carried two realities at once: a politician seeking mass votes and a scion of one of Kenyas wealthiest families. economy / politics / society ●●●

17 February 1986 Single European Act 0 cit. First major revision of the Treaty of Rome, committing members to complete the single market by 1992 and expanding majority voting. It relaunched European integration. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●●

27 October 1986 London Big Bang deregulation 0 cit. The London Stock Exchange abolishes fixed commissions and opens membership to foreign firms, switching to electronic trading overnight. The Big Bang restores London's place as a top global financial center. economy / politics ●●●●

15 December 1986 Vietnam adopts Doi Moi reforms 0 cit. The Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam adopts Doi Moi, a program of market-oriented renovation. Vietnam moves from central planning toward a socialist-oriented market economy. economy / politics ●●●

c. 1986 Creflo Dollar and World Changers 0 cit. Creflo Dollar built World Changers Church International on explicit prosperity teaching that faith and giving produce financial abundance. His appeals for donations toward private jets became a widely cited example of the movement's excesses. economy / religion ●●

c. 1 January 1986 Oliver North diverts funds to the Contras 0 cit. National Security Council aide Oliver North helped run the arms sales and steered the profits to the Contras. The diversion tied the two secret operations into a single scandal. economy / politics ●●●●

1986 Hanson Trust takes over Imperial Group 0 cit. Hanson Trust won a hostile takeover of Imperial Group, a large British tobacco, food, and brewing conglomerate, after a bidding contest. Hanson quickly sold off Imperial's brewing and restaurant businesses and other divisions that did not fit its strategy, keeping the profitable tobacco core. The deal was a textbook example of Hanson's approach: buy a diversified group, then sell the pieces for more than the whole had cost. economy ●●

1986 James Goldsmith raids Goodyear Tire 0 cit. Sir James Goldsmith built a stake in Goodyear Tire & Rubber and launched a hostile bid, arguing the company was worth more broken up than as a single business. Goodyear's management fought back by buying out Goldsmith's stake at a premium and taking on substantial new debt to fend off the raid, drawing criticism in Congress over the use of greenmail and the debt burden left on the company. Goldsmith profited from the stock buyback despite never gaining control. economy ●●

1986 KKR buys Safeway in a leveraged buyout 0 cit. KKR bought the supermarket chain Safeway in a leveraged buyout to help management fend off a hostile bid from the Haft family's Dart Group. To pay down the debt taken on for the deal, Safeway sold off large numbers of stores and closed others, particularly in regions outside its core markets, and cut thousands of jobs. KKR and Safeway's management said the restructuring made the surviving business stronger; labor unions and some academic studies pointed to the job losses and store closures as direct costs of the debt-funded deal. economy ●●

December 1986 British Gas privatized 0 cit. The British government sold British Gas to private shareholders in another large share offering under Margaret Thatcher's privatization program. As with British Telecom, the sale converted a state monopoly into a privately owned one without breaking it into competing pieces, which critics said simply replaced a public monopoly with a private one instead of opening the market to real competition. The government defended the sale as returning an inefficient nationalized industry to private, profit-driven management. economy / politics ●●

1986 The oil price collapse 0 cit. New supply from the North Sea, Alaska, and elsewhere, plus Saudi Arabia opening its taps, sends oil prices crashing. The glut ended the boom of the 1970s and strained oil-dependent economies from Texas to the Soviet Union. economy ●●

c. 1986 The Bank of Japan cuts rates to counter the strong yen 0 cit. To cushion the export slump caused by the soaring yen, the Bank of Japan cut its discount rate step by step to a record low of 2.5 percent by early 1987. Cheap money flooded into stocks and real estate rather than only into productive investment. The easy policy fed a growing asset boom. economy / politics ●●●●

c. 1987 Dublin as an international financial services hub 0 cit. Ireland opens the International Financial Services Centre in Dublin's docklands in 1987, using low taxes to attract global banks and fund administrators. The city becomes a major European base for investment funds and aircraft leasing finance. economy ●●

21 February 1987 Founding of TSMC 0 cit. Morris Chang founds the Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, the first pure-play chip foundry. Making chips designed by others, it becomes the world's most advanced chipmaker and a linchpin of the global economy. economy / technology ●●●●

15 September 1987 Founding of Huawei 0 cit. Former army engineer Ren Zhengfei founds Huawei in Shenzhen, initially reselling phone switches. It becomes the world's largest telecom equipment maker and a focal point of U.S.-China technology tensions. economy / politics / technology ●●●

1987 UNICEF's Adjustment with a Human Face 0 cit. A landmark UNICEF study argued that structural adjustment was harming children through cuts to health and education spending. It pushed the World Bank and IMF to acknowledge the social costs of their programs. economy / society ●●●●

c. 1987 Adjustment and the burden of user fees 0 cit. Adjustment programs often introduced or raised fees for health clinics and schools to cut public spending. Studies documented falling attendance and use of services, especially among poor families and girls. economy / society ●●●

29 July 1987 Thomas Sankara denounces Third World debt at the OAU 0 cit. Burkina Faso's president Thomas Sankara urged fellow African leaders to collectively refuse repayment of debts he called a continuation of colonial exploitation, arguing they had mostly been contracted by predecessor regimes and mainly benefited foreign creditors. Three months later Sankara was assassinated in a coup led by Blaise Compaore, who restored closer ties with France; French involvement in the coup has long been alleged by researchers and was the subject of a 2021 French judicial investigation, though it is disputed rather than fully proven. economy / politics ●●

29 July 1987 Sankara calls for a united refusal to pay debt 0 cit. Burkina Faso's president Thomas Sankara tells an African summit that the debt is a tool to keep the continent under control and urges states to refuse payment together. He argued that the loans financed the colonizers' interests and could never be repaid on fair terms. Months later he was assassinated, and the speech became a touchstone for the argument that the system is built to keep the periphery dependent. economy / politics ●●

c. 1987 Economic stagnation under mismanagement 0 cit. After steady growth in the early independence years, Kenya's economy stalled under Moi as debt rose, jobs grew scarce, and living standards slipped. Bloated state companies, poor planning, and political interference drained public money. Ordinary Kenyans felt the squeeze while a connected elite prospered. economy / society ●●

1987 The Bamako Initiative brings user fees into public health 0 cit. African health ministers, WHO, and UNICEF adopt a community-financing scheme that spreads user fees for drugs and clinic visits as part of cost recovery in strained public health systems. Supporters said it would fund and sustain local services when state budgets were collapsing. Critics documented that charging fees pushed poorer patients away from care. economy / society ●●

1987 UNICEF publishes Adjustment with a Human Face 0 cit. The UNICEF study by Cornia, Jolly, and Stewart documents that structural adjustment cut spending on health and education and worsened child welfare and poverty across many countries. It urged lenders to protect the poor and social services during reform. This gave the critical reading of adjustment an evidence base from inside the UN system. economy / society ●●●

c. 1987 An asset bubble inflates in stocks and Tokyo land 0 cit. Cheap credit and easy bank lending pushed share and land prices to extraordinary heights in the late 1980s. At the peak, the grounds of the Imperial Palace were said to be worth more than all the real estate in California, and Japan's total land value dwarfed that of the United States. Banks lent freely against land collateral whose price kept climbing. economy ●●●●

17 September 1988 Founding of CNPC 0 cit. China dissolves its Ministry of Petroleum and creates the China National Petroleum Corporation to run its oil and gas industry. CNPC and its listed arm PetroChina become one of the world's largest energy groups. economy / politics ●●●

c. 1988 BlackRock is founded 0 cit. Larry Fink and partners founded BlackRock as a bond investment firm. It grew into the world's largest asset manager and a central player in global capital markets. economy / technology ●●●

c. 1988 BlackRock founded 0 cit. BlackRock was founded as an asset management firm and grew into the world's largest, overseeing trillions of dollars. The rise of large asset managers gave a handful of firms significant influence over global companies and markets. economy ●●●

15 July 1988 Basel I sets the first global capital standard 0 cit. The Basel Committee issued Basel I, the first international standard requiring banks to hold minimum capital against their risks. It set a common benchmark that spread to banking systems around the world. economy / politics ●●●●

1988 Founding of MIGA 0 cit. The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency was added to the World Bank Group to insure foreign investors against political risk in developing countries. It completed the group's five-institution structure. economy ●●

December 1988 British Steel privatized 0 cit. The British government sold British Steel Corporation to private investors, completing the privatization of the nationalized steel industry after years of plant closures and job cuts that had already shrunk the workforce sharply during the 1980s. Supporters pointed to the leaner, more competitive company that emerged; critics of the broader privatization program argued that decades of state assets and jobs had been stripped away in the name of efficiency, with the resulting profits flowing to new private owners rather than the communities that had built the industry. economy / politics ●●

21 December 1988 Drexel Burnham Lambert pleads guilty to fraud 0 cit. Drexel Burnham Lambert, the investment bank that had built the modern junk-bond market under Michael Milken and financed much of the 1980s takeover and buyout boom, pleaded guilty to six felony counts of securities and mail fraud and agreed to pay a 650 million dollar fine. Prosecutors had built the case around insider trading and stock manipulation schemes involving Milken, Ivan Boesky, and others. The plea marked the beginning of the end for the firm that had underwritten financing for many of the decade's most aggressive raids and buyouts. economy ●●●

October 1988 RJR Nabisco leveraged buyout 0 cit. KKR won a fierce bidding war against RJR Nabisco's own management team, led by F. Ross Johnson, to buy the food and tobacco conglomerate in a leveraged buyout worth about 25 billion dollars, the largest LBO of its era. The deal, financed overwhelmingly with debt underwritten in part by Drexel Burnham, became the subject of the book and later film "Barbarians at the Gate," which came to symbolize the excesses of the 1980s buyout boom. RJR Nabisco later sold off businesses and cut jobs to service the debt, and the deal is widely cited in both defenses and criticisms of the leveraged buyout model. economy ●●●

1988 Robert Campeau's leveraged buyout of Federated Department Stores 0 cit. Canadian developer Robert Campeau won a hostile bidding war to buy Federated Department Stores, owner of Bloomingdale's and other chains, in a heavily leveraged deal financed largely with junk bonds arranged through Drexel Burnham. The debt load proved unsustainable, and Federated filed for bankruptcy in January 1990, one of the largest retail bankruptcies to that point. The collapse became a widely cited cautionary example of a debt-fueled takeover that overwhelmed the operating business it had acquired. economy ●●

July 1988 Revco drugstore chain files for bankruptcy after leveraged buyout 0 cit. Revco D.S., a large drugstore chain, filed for bankruptcy less than two years after being taken private in a 1.25 billion dollar leveraged buyout led by its own management with financing from Salomon Brothers. The debt burden from the buyout left the company unable to invest in its stores and unable to service its obligations once sales slowed. The case became one of the most frequently cited examples in Congress and the financial press of an LBO that collapsed under its own debt. economy ●●

8 August 1989 Founding of Gazprom 0 cit. The Soviet Ministry of Gas Industry is converted into the State Gas Concern Gazprom, the USSR's first state corporate enterprise. Privatized after 1991, it controls the world's largest gas reserves and Russia's export pipelines. economy / politics ●●●

c. 1989 Washington Consensus formulated 0 cit. Economist John Williamson coins the term Washington Consensus for the package of liberalization, privatization, and fiscal discipline urged on developing countries. The label comes to stand for market-oriented globalization. economy ●●●

c. 1989 Washington Consensus named 0 cit. Economist John Williamson coined the term Washington Consensus to describe a set of free market policy reforms recommended for developing economies. It came to stand for the prevailing economic orthodoxy promoted by Washington based institutions. economy ●●●●

1989 The Washington Consensus is named 1 cit. Economist John Williamson coined the term Washington Consensus to describe a set of market-oriented policies favored by the IMF, World Bank, and US Treasury. The label came to stand, often critically, for the whole adjustment agenda. economy / politics ●●●●●

March 1989 The Brady Plan for debt reduction 0 cit. US Treasury Secretary Nicholas Brady proposed converting Latin American bank debt into tradable bonds with partial write-downs. The plan brought a measure of relief after years of the crisis being treated as a liquidity rather than solvency problem. economy / politics ●●●

1989 Asus takes its name from Pegasus of Greek myth 0 cit. The Taiwanese electronics company, founded in 1989, took its name from the last letters of Pegasus, the winged horse of Greek mythology. economy / religion / technology ●●

1989 John Williamson coins the term Washington Consensus 0 cit. Economist John Williamson coins the term Washington Consensus to describe a set of ten policy prescriptions, including fiscal discipline, privatization, deregulation, and trade liberalization, that the U.S. Treasury, IMF, and World Bank commonly recommended to developing countries and Latin America. The term became shorthand, often used critically, for the global spread of Chicago School and neoliberal policy through international lending institutions. diplomacy / economy ●●●

9 November 1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall and the end of Soviet-style central planning 0 cit. The Berlin Wall falls, and within two years the Soviet bloc's centrally planned economies collapse, discrediting comprehensive state planning in the eyes of most Western economists. The event was widely read as a vindication of Hayek's warnings in The Road to Serfdom and gave momentum to market-oriented reform across the former communist world. economy / politics ●●●

March 1989 The Brady Plan restructures developing-country debt 0 cit. US Treasury Secretary Nicholas Brady proposed a plan letting commercial banks exchange defaulted developing-country loans for tradeable bonds at a discount, backed by US Treasury collateral. The plan reduced the total debt stock for some Latin American countries but left borrowing nations dependent on continued IMF-approved economic policies to qualify, extending the conditionality regime rather than ending it. economy ●

29 March 1989 Michael Milken indicted 0 cit. A federal grand jury indicted Michael Milken, the Drexel Burnham banker who had built the junk-bond financing that fueled much of the 1980s takeover and leveraged-buyout wave, on 98 counts of racketeering and securities fraud. The case centered on insider trading and stock parking schemes rather than the legality of junk bonds or leveraged buyouts themselves. Milken pleaded guilty to a reduced set of six counts in April 1990 and was sentenced to ten years in prison, later reduced. economy ●●

March 1989 The Brady Plan writes down some debt 0 cit. US Treasury Secretary Nicholas Brady accepts that some debt must be forgiven, swapping old loans for tradable 'Brady bonds' at a discount. It gave partial relief to middle-income debtors while keeping the conditions attached. The plan eased the worst of the crisis without ending the underlying dependence on outside finance. diplomacy / economy ●●

27 February 1989 The Caracazo: austerity turns deadly 0 cit. Riots erupt in Venezuela after a new IMF-backed austerity package raises fuel and transport prices, and the crackdown kills hundreds. The Caracazo became a symbol of the human cost of structural adjustment. Similar 'IMF riots' struck other cities where subsidy cuts hit the poor hardest. economy / politics ●●

c. August 1989 Gazprom created from the Soviet gas ministry 0 cit. The Soviet Ministry of the Gas Industry was reorganized into the state concern Gazprom, which kept control of Russia's vast gas reserves and pipeline network. The firm became a commercial arm of the state and a tool of foreign policy toward Europe. It remains one of the clearest examples of a company that doubles as an instrument of national power. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●

1989 The Washington Consensus is codified 0 cit. Economist John Williamson lists ten policy prescriptions, from fiscal discipline to privatization and liberalization, that Washington institutions broadly agreed on for developing economies. This is the reform rationale in its own words: correct the failures of over-large, over-indebted states. Its defenders argue the alternative was continued fiscal collapse, not a healthy state. economy / politics ●●●

29 December 1989 The Nikkei peaks at nearly 39,000 0 cit. On the last trading day of 1989 the Nikkei 225 stock average closed at 38,915, its all-time high. Japanese assets and companies looked poised to dominate the world. It was the top of the bubble, though few recognized it at the time. economy ●●●●

1989 NCPB turns maize into state food politics 1 cit. The National Cereals and Produce Board system made maize a political crop: depots, agents, prices, payments, imports, storage and strategic reserves all ran through state machinery. This gave farmers a buyer and the country a grain buffer, but it also made maize vulnerable to patronage, delayed payments and politically timed supply decisions. economy / politics / society ●●●●

c. 1990 Shanghai's return as a financial center 0 cit. The Shanghai Stock Exchange reopens in 1990 and the new Pudong district rises as China's financial showcase. The city again ranks among the world's top financial centers, hosting one of the largest stock markets by value. economy ●●●●

c. 1990 Shenzhen as China's second exchange city 0 cit. The Shenzhen Stock Exchange opens in 1990 in the special economic zone bordering Hong Kong. It grows into one of the world's largest exchanges, focused on China's technology and growth companies. economy / technology ●●

27 November 1990 Founding of Arm 0 cit. Acorn, Apple, and VLSI Technology found Advanced RISC Machines in Cambridge. Its licensed low-power chip designs end up in almost every smartphone on earth. economy / technology ●●●

2 August 1990 Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait 0 cit. Iraq under Saddam Hussein invaded and annexed Kuwait, seizing its oil fields. The invasion triggered a global crisis and a US-led military response. economy / politics / war ●●●●●

c. 1990 to c. 2000 The African debt burden 0 cit. By the 1990s many African states were spending more on servicing foreign debt than on health or education. The scale of the burden helped drive the global campaign for debt relief. economy / society ●●●●

c. 1990 The revolving door and creditor influence 0 cit. Critics point to the movement of officials between the IMF, World Bank, central banks, and private finance as evidence that creditor interests shape policy. The concentration of voting power in a few wealthy states sharpens the concern. economy / politics ●●●

c. 1990 Corruption in aid and lending 0 cit. The World Bank's own reviews and later research documented that a share of aid and loan money was lost to graft and capital flight, in some cases to accounts in financial centers. The findings fueled debate over how much lending reached the intended poor. economy / politics ●●●

1990 Pegasus Airlines is named for the winged horse of Greek myth 0 cit. The Turkish low-cost carrier, founded in 1990, is named after Pegasus, the winged horse of Greek mythology. economy / religion / technology ●●

11 March 1990 Chile returns to democracy 0 cit. Patricio Aylwin is inaugurated as president, ending seventeen years of military rule under Pinochet and restoring civilian democratic government to Chile. Chile's subsequent governments largely retained the market-oriented economic framework built by the Chicago Boys while extending social spending, a mixed legacy still debated by economists and historians. economy / politics ●●

13 February 1990 Drexel Burnham Lambert collapses 0 cit. Drexel Burnham Lambert filed for bankruptcy after the 1988 guilty plea, mounting legal costs, and the collapse of the junk-bond market it had built cut off its financing business. The firm's failure removed the main source of debt financing for hostile takeovers and leveraged buyouts and is widely seen as marking the end of the 1980s corporate-raider era. Its former bankers and traders went on to found or join many of the private equity and hedge fund firms that dominated the following decades. economy ●●●

December 1990 Telmex privatized in Mexico 0 cit. The Mexican government under President Carlos Salinas sold Telmex, the state telephone monopoly, to a consortium led by businessman Carlos Slim along with France Telecom and Southwestern Bell. The sale was part of a wider wave of privatizations across Latin America in the late 1980s and 1990s intended to reduce state debt and encourage private investment. Slim's stake in Telmex became the foundation of his fortune, and critics later argued the sale preserved Telmex's monopoly position rather than opening the market to competition, a criticism the buyers and the government disputed. economy / politics ●●

c. 1990 Argentina's privatization program under Menem 0 cit. President Carlos Menem's government sold off state enterprises including the national airline, telephone company, and oil company as part of an aggressive privatization and market liberalization program during the early 1990s. The government said the sales cut chronic deficits and modernized outdated state monopolies; critics, including later Argentine governments, argued that many assets were sold at low prices to politically connected buyers and that the proceeds were spent rather than invested, leaving the state poorer in the long run. economy / politics ●●

1990 "Barbarians at the Gate" published 0 cit. Journalists Bryan Burrough and John Helyar published "Barbarians at the Gate," an account of the 1988 RJR Nabisco leveraged buyout battle that became a bestseller and later an HBO film. The book's title entered the language as shorthand for the aggressive, debt-financed takeover culture of Wall Street in the 1980s. It remains one of the most widely read popular accounts of how leveraged buyouts and hostile takeovers actually worked inside the boardroom. culture / economy ●

c. 1990 Enclave economies and the resource curse endure 0 cit. The pattern the banana companies pioneered outlived them: foreign firms extracting a single commodity, walled off from the local economy, while host nations stay poor and politically fragile. Economists describe versions of this as the resource curse, where dependence on one export undermines development and invites corruption. Critics see the banana republics as an early template for later forms of neocolonial control. economy / society ●●

1990 Botswana and Norway argue the curse is not destiny 0 cit. Botswana used its diamond partnership with De Beers to fund schools, roads, and steady growth, while Norway placed its North Sea oil income in a national savings fund created in 1990. Both are cited as evidence that resource wealth can be managed well when institutions are strong and honest. Their example anchors the central debate, whether the resource curse is a fate written by geology or a result of policy and power that better choices can change. economy / politics ●●

c. 1990 The rise of the NGO as a global actor 0 cit. After the Cold War the number and budget of humanitarian and development NGOs surge, and they take on roles once held by states in relief, health and rights work. Much of this work is exactly what it claims to be. But their growing dependence on government grants also raised the question of whose interests they ultimately serve. economy / politics / society ●●

c. 1990 Returns to democracy and the pink tide 0 cit. Through the 1980s and 1990s the military governments give way to elected civilian rule across the continent. From the late 1990s a series of left-leaning presidents, dubbed the pink tide, win power on promises to reduce poverty and inequality, followed later by conservative swings. The period is marked by commodity booms and busts and by continuing arguments over how to escape dependence on raw-material exports. economy / politics ●●

1990 Norway builds its oil fund as a national portfolio 0 cit. Parliament created the fund that became the Government Pension Fund Global to save oil revenue and invest it in stocks and bonds worldwide. It grew into the largest sovereign wealth fund on earth, owning small slices of thousands of companies. The country holds much of its wealth the way an index investor holds a diversified portfolio. economy / politics ●●●

c. 1990 The Mexican cartels take over the trade 0 cit. As the Colombian cartels were broken up, Mexican organizations that had moved their cocaine took control of smuggling into the United States. Groups like the Sinaloa cartel, led by Joaquín El Chapo Guzmán, grew into the dominant traffickers of the era. economy / politics ●●

c. 1990 Ethnic patronage and grand corruption 0 cit. Moi's system ran on patronage, rewarding loyal communities and allies with land, contracts, and public jobs while starving opponents' regions. Grand corruption became routine, tying access to wealth to closeness to the president. The practice hollowed out state institutions and deepened ethnic division. economy / politics ●●

1990 The bubble bursts and markets crash 0 cit. Stocks fell through 1990 as the Bank of Japan raised interest rates, and land prices peaked and then slid from 1991. By 1992 the Nikkei had lost more than half its value from the peak. Trillions of dollars in paper wealth vanished, and the collateral behind bank loans collapsed. economy ●●●●

c. 1990 to c. 2024 WHO's budget splits into small dues and large earmarked gifts 0 cit. Over decades the WHO comes to rely less on the assessed dues member states owe and more on voluntary contributions from governments and private donors. Most of that voluntary money is earmarked for specific programs chosen by the donor. Assessed dues make up a minority of the budget, leaving the organization dependent on funds it does not fully control. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●●

c. 1990 Tourism sells the Maasai image as the land slips away 0 cit. The red shuka, beadwork and jumping dance of the Maasai became a central marketing image for Kenyan and Tanzanian tourism. Yet much of the money from safari lodges and cultural shows flowed to operators and the state rather than to Maasai communities. The Maasai found their identity used as a brand even as they were being pushed off the land that gave it meaning. economy / society ●●

c. 1990 Mara group ranches are subdivided into private titles 2 cit. Group ranches around the Maasai Mara, including major blocks such as Koiyaki and Lemek, came under pressure to subdivide into individual parcels. Many landowners wanted title deeds, inheritance security and a direct share of rising land values, while others feared committee capture and elite dealing. The result fragmented open grazing land into marketable private plots, making it easier to sell, fence, farm or lease the land. economy / politics / society ●●●●

26 March 1991 Treaty of Asuncion 0 cit. Treaty among Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay creating Mercosur, a southern common market. It became the main trade bloc of South America. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●●

28 June 1991 Dissolution of Comecon 0 cit. At its final council session in Budapest, Comecon members agree to dissolve the Soviet-led economic bloc as communist rule collapses across Eastern Europe. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●●

26 March 1991 Founding of Mercosur 0 cit. Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay sign the Treaty of Asunción creating the Southern Common Market, South America's main trade bloc. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●●

April 1991 Founding of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development 0 cit. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, western nations establish the EBRD in London to finance the transition of former communist economies to markets. Its mandate later expands to the Middle East and North Africa. economy / politics ●●●

5 July 1991 Collapse of BCCI 0 cit. Regulators in seven countries seize the Bank of Credit and Commerce International, exposing massive fraud, money laundering, and hidden losses across its global network. It is the largest bank fraud scandal in history at the time. economy / politics ●●●●

4 December 1991 Collapse of Pan Am 0 cit. Pan American World Airways ceases operations after decades of losses, deregulation, and the 1988 Lockerbie bombing. The fall of the pioneering international airline marks the end of aviation's golden age. economy ●●●

c. 1991 to c. 2000 Zambia, copper, and adjustment 0 cit. Zambia carried out privatization and liberalization, including the sale of its state copper mines, under Bank and Fund programs. Supporters cited later mining investment while critics pointed to job losses and weakened social spending. economy / society ●●

1 April 1991 to 2001 Argentina's convertibility experiment 0 cit. Argentina pegged its peso one-to-one to the US dollar and became a showcase for IMF-backed reform through the 1990s. The rigid peg later left the country unable to adjust as debt mounted and recession set in. economy / politics ●●●

c. 1991 Friedman's second visit to Chile and public defense of his role 0 cit. In later years Friedman continued to defend his advice to Chile, arguing that the economic liberalization, however imposed, ultimately helped end the dictatorship by creating a prosperous middle class that pushed for democratic change. Critics rejected this argument, pointing to the years of repression that accompanied the reforms and to the sharp rise in inequality documented by Chilean economists. economy / politics ●

23 March 1991 Sierra Leone civil war begins 0 cit. The Revolutionary United Front launched an insurgency against the Sierra Leonean government, beginning an eleven-year civil war marked by mass amputations and the use of child soldiers. The RUF financed its campaign chiefly by seizing diamond-mining areas and smuggling rough diamonds out through neighboring Liberia. economy / war ●●●

26 December 1991 Soviet Union dissolved 0 cit. The Soviet Union formally ceased to exist, leaving Russia's new government under Boris Yeltsin to build a market economy almost overnight. State planning agencies collapsed, and control over vast Soviet industrial and energy assets became an open question that would define the next decade. economy / politics ●●●

6 November 1991 Yegor Gaidar named to lead economic reform 0 cit. Boris Yeltsin appointed economist Yegor Gaidar as deputy prime minister in charge of economic policy, tasking him with dismantling Soviet central planning. Gaidar assembled a team of young reformers, including Anatoly Chubais, to design rapid market liberalization, a program that came to be known as shock therapy. economy / politics ●●

1991 Hanson Trust bids for ICI 0 cit. Hanson Trust built a stake in the chemicals group Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) and prepared a hostile bid, prompting ICI to argue publicly that Hanson intended to break the company up and sell its parts rather than invest in its research and long-term business. Hanson withdrew the bid in 1991 after strong opposition from ICI's management, shareholders, and the British government. The episode became a rallying point in the British debate over whether hostile takeovers served shareholders or simply dismantled long-established industrial companies. economy ●●

c. 1991 The Goldenberg scheme drains the treasury 0 cit. Between about 1991 and 1993 the company Goldenberg International was paid large 'export compensation' bonuses by the Central Bank of Kenya for gold and diamond exports that were largely fictitious. Kenya mines almost no gold and no diamonds. Estimates of the loss run to around 10 percent of the country's annual GDP. It remains the single largest documented fraud in Kenyan history. economy / politics ●●●

26 November 1991 Paris donors freeze aid over reform 0 cit. At a Consultative Group meeting in Paris on 25 to 26 November 1991, Western donors suspended new aid to Kenya and demanded political and economic reforms. The freeze hit a government already short of cash and left Moi with little room to refuse. Within days he moved to end one-party rule. diplomacy / economy ●●●

c. 1991 The Goldenberg scandal drains the treasury 0 cit. Through a company called Goldenberg International, the government paid out huge export compensation for gold and diamonds that Kenya barely produced or exported. The fraud is estimated to have cost the state on the order of 10 percent of annual GDP. It ranks among the largest corruption scandals in the country's history and reached into the heart of the government. economy / politics ●●●

19 March 1991 UPOV 1991 Act tightens plant breeders' rights 0 cit. The 1991 revision of the UPOV Convention strengthened the exclusive rights of commercial plant breeders and narrowed the traditional freedom of farmers to save, reuse and exchange protected seed. Trade deals and partnership agreements increasingly require developing countries to join UPOV 1991 as a condition of access. Farmer and food-sovereignty groups argue it criminalizes age-old seed-saving; seed-industry bodies argue it protects the investment needed to breed better varieties. diplomacy / economy / society ●●

November 1991 Western donors freeze aid to force reform 0 cit. Meeting in Paris, Kenya's main aid donors suspended about 350 million dollars in support and tied future money to political and economic change. The freeze hit hard because the government relied on foreign lending. Within weeks the ruling party moved to legalize opposition parties. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●●

1991 New Keynesian economics answers the market-clearing critique 2 cit. By the 1980s and early 1990s, New Keynesian economists rebuilt parts of Keynesian macroeconomics with microfoundations: sticky prices, imperfect competition, credit frictions, coordination failures and other reasons markets may not clear quickly. The result was not old Keynesianism restored unchanged, but a new mainstream synthesis. economy / science ●●●●

17 December 1992 North American Free Trade Agreement 0 cit. Agreement creating a free trade area among the United States, Canada, and Mexico, effective 1994. It reshaped North American supply chains and the politics of trade. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●●●

17 August 1992 Founding of the Southern African Development Community 0 cit. Southern African leaders sign the SADC Treaty in Windhoek, transforming the 1980 anti-apartheid coordination conference SADCC into a full regional development community. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●

7 February 1992 Maastricht Treaty 0 cit. European leaders sign the treaty creating the European Union and committing to a single currency. The EU becomes the deepest experiment in pooling national sovereignty, later launching the euro. economy / politics ●●●●

c. January 1992 Shock Therapy and Economic Collapse 0 cit. The Yeltsin government freed prices and moved rapidly to a market economy, causing hyperinflation and a deep fall in living standards. Mass privatization concentrated wealth among a small group of businessmen who became known as oligarchs. economy / politics / society ●●●