Events, Verisoph

24 December 1951 Independence of Libya 0 cit. no story Libya becomes an independent kingdom under Idris I, the first state to gain independence through the United Nations. politics ●●●

1951 McCarran Committee and the 'loss of China' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1951 the Senate's McCarran Committee sought to show that China had been lost to the Communists through the deliberate actions of Far East experts coordinated by the Institute of Pacific Relations. ●●

1951 Truman relieves MacArthur ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the MacArthur-Martin letter was read in Congress on 5 April 1951, Truman removed MacArthur from all his Far East commands five days later, provoking a storm of opposition. ●●

1951 Japanese peace treaty signed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Dulles obtained a peace treaty with Japan, signed 8 September 1951, that ended the Pacific war within a mutual-security structure and excluded the Soviet Union and Communist China. ●●

1951 McCarthy's Senate attack on Marshall ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In June 1951 Senator McCarthy delivered a 60,000-word Senate speech attacking General Marshall as steeped in falsehood and part of a vast conspiracy. ●●

1951 Assassination of Razmara and Iranian oil nationalization ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Iranian opposition to nationalization collapsed in March 1951 when Prime Minister Ali Razmara and his education minister were assassinated within two weeks. The nationalization law passed the following month and Mossadegh was appointed prime minister to carry it out. ●●

1951 American occupation reforms Japanese agriculture ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The reorganization of Japanese agriculture, largely due to the American Military Occupation (SCAP), raised the index of agricultural production 40 percent in the decade 1951-1961. Quigley calls the Japanese agrarian reform one of the remarkable economic transformations of the century. ●●

1951 Senate subcommittee investigates the IPR ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book cites a 1951 Senate Judiciary subcommittee that sought to show China had been lost to Communists through a group of Far East experts tied to the Institute of Pacific Relations. It presents the IPR as an instrument of the Network. ●●

1951 CIC gives Klaus Barbie passage to Argentina ai_extracted 1 cit. no story That, in the final analysis, is why the CIC chose to provide Barbie with a new identity and safe passage to Argentina in 1951, while thousands of other ex-Nazis who had been “of interest” to the CIC at one time or another have simply lived out their lives in Germany. ●●

1951 First Lodge Act recruits arrive at Camp Kilmer ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Italians ? The first known group of Lodge Act recruits arrived by a military airlift at Camp Kilmer, New Jersey, in October 1951. Most were Ukrainians and Poles, but virtually ever... ●●

1951 Time names Mossadegh Man of the Year ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Mohammad Mossadegh, Iran's nationalist prime minister, was recognized by Time magazine as the most influential figure of 1951, chosen over major world leaders. ●●

1951 Mossadegh becomes Iran's prime minister ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Frustrated with British exploitation of Iranian oil reserves, Iranians selected Mohammad Mossadegh as prime minister to challenge the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. ●●

1951 Mohammad Mossadegh comes to power in Iran ai_extracted 1 cit. no story They carried an outspokenly idealistic Iranian, Mohammad Mossadegh, to power in the spring of 1951 (1951) ●●

1951 General strike paralyzes colonial Grenada ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Grenada had been a relatively quiet British colony for more than a century when, at the beginning of 1951, it was paralyzed by a general strike (1951) ●●

1951 Bedell Smith names Dulles deputy director of plans ai_extracted 1 cit. no story CIA Director Bedell Smith appointed Allen Dulles as deputy director of plans to control Wisner's sprawling covert operations. ●●

1951 Ridgway's spring offensive retakes Seoul ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the spring of 1951, a new American offensive under General Ridgway was grinding its way north using traditional American tactics of attrition. It had liberated Seoul and crossed the 38th Parallel when the communists proposed armistice negotiations. ●●

1951 Communists propose Korean armistice talks ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In June 1951, the communists proposed armistice negotiations in Korea. Washington ordered an end to offensive action, with operations at battalion level and above requiring approval by the Supreme Commander. ●●

1951 MANIAC computer completed and first tested ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The new machine was christened MANIAC (Mathematical and Numerical Integrator and Computer) and put to its first test, during the summer of 1951, with ●●

1951 Hannah Arendt publishes The Origins of Totalitarianism ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Zuboff cites Arendt's groundbreaking analysis as the first scholarly attempt to comprehend totalitarianism's unprecedented systematic violence and the destruction of human autonomy. ●●

1951 B.F. Skinner publishes Science and Human Behavior ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Zuboff details Skinner's 1951 work establishing that all human action—choice, problem-solving, self-knowledge—must be analyzed through manipulation of external environmental variables. ●●

1951 West German law reinstates former Nazi civil servants ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A federal law passed in 1951 granted all regular civil servants, including those with Nazi backgrounds and those expelled by East Germany, a right to reinstatement. ●●

1951 Iran nationalizes oil and elects Mossadegh premier ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In March 1951, the bill for nationalization was passed, and at the end of April Mossadegh was elected prime minister by a large majority of Parliament ●●

1952 Dulles's 'A Policy of Boldness' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In his May 1952 Life article 'A Policy of Boldness,' Dulles argued that containment must be replaced by 'liberation,' framing impatience with foreign problems. ●●

1952 'Mike' thermonuclear explosion at Eniwetok ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Teller-Ulam design was tested in the 'Mike' thermonuclear shot at Eniwetok on 1 November 1952, yielding about ten megatons but weighing 65 tons and far from a deliverable bomb. ●●

1952 Eisenhower elected president ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Eisenhower won the November 1952 election, aided by a Madison Avenue campaign mobilizing discontent and by his pledge, on Emmet Hughes's suggestion, to go to Korea to make peace. ●●

1952 Japanese Communist Party collapses in 1952 elections ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley notes that the growing prosperity of Japan and the success of Ladejinsky's land reforms steadily reduced Communist influence. The Communist Party of Japan won under 3 percent of the vote in the October 1952 elections and lost all twenty-two of its Diet seats. ●●

1952 Cairo riots of January 1952 burn British landmarks ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 26, 1952, riots in Cairo burned about four hundred buildings, including Shepheard's Hotel, the center of British tourist life. The disturbances shattered the Egyptian political system and precipitated the fall of the Nahas government. ●●

1952 Farouk forced to abdicate in Egyptian revolution ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After young officers seized the army headquarters and government on July 22, 1952, King Farouk was forced to abdicate four days later with tanks surrounding his palace and was sent into exile. The revolution was engineered by a small group led by Nasser. ●●

1952 Egyptian Agrarian Law of 1952 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Agrarian Law of September 1952 sought to relieve the peasantry and push landlords to shift wealth from land into industry, setting a maximum landholding of 315 acres per family. It shaped much of the Nasser regime's subsequent economic policy. ●●

1952 Bolivian revolution of 1952 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the MNR won the largest vote in 1951 but was barred from power, the officers' junta split and was overthrown by an uprising in April 1952. Paz Estenssoro returned from exile to become president, and the mines and large estates were soon nationalized or broken up. ●●

1952 Guatemalan land reform targets United Fruit ai_extracted 1 cit. no story US opposition to the Arbenz government arose once it became clear the Land Reform Act of June 1952 would apply to the United Fruit Company. About 400,000 acres of United Fruit land were later distributed to 180,000 peasants. ●●

1952 Batista seizes power in Cuba ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Cuban election scheduled for 1953 was prevented when Batista seized power once again in March 1952. His corrupt and violent rule provoked the rising tide of discontent that Castro would exploit. ●●

1952 Eisenhower nominated over Taft, 1952 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley describes the Eastern Establishment's ability to nominate Eisenhower over Taft in 1952 as a bitter defeat for the petty-bourgeois, Middle Western wing of the Republican Party. ●●

1952 Army investigates draftees who faked illiteracy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto recounts that in 1952 the Army hired hundreds of psychologists to learn how 600,000 high school graduates had faked illiteracy, concluding a collapse in reading instruction had begun in the 1930s. ●●

1952 Truman creates the National Security Agency ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The NSA was established to master signals intelligence after the surprises of the Korean War. Its budget and power fell under the secretary of defense. ●●

1952 Kennedy defeats Lodge for Massachusetts Senate seat ai_extracted 3 cit. no story Lodge had represented Massachusetts in the Senate until 1952, when he lost his seat to Kennedy (1952) ●●

1952 CIA guerrilla team captured in Manchuria trap ai_extracted 1 cit. no story CIA dropped four-man Chinese guerrilla team into Manchuria in July 1952. The team was captured and turned against the CIA by Chinese forces. Rescue attempt killed two pilots; two CIA officers spent decades in Chinese prisons. ●●

1952 Puerto Rico becomes a free associated state ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Puerto Rico voted to accept free associated state status, a unique arrangement neither fully independent nor a state. After gaining the right to elect its own governor in 1948, Puerto Rico accepted this constitutional status in a 1952 referendum. ●●

1952 Stalin issues his 1952 Peace Note on Germany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Stalin may have had a foreboding of the real balance of forces when he reacted to the American arms buildup during the Korean War with his Peace Note of 1952 (see chapter 20). ●●

1952 Julian Bigelow shuts down the IAS computer ai_extracted 1 cit. no story —John von Neumann to Marston Morse, 1952 AT EXACTLY MIDNIGHT on July 15, 1958, in the machine room at the end of Olden Lane, Julian Bigelow turned of ●●

1952 Alan Turing convicted of gross indecency ai_extracted 1 cit. no story All went well until 1952, when Turing was convicted on a charge of gross indecency (for homosexuality), forced to undergo “therapy” with estrogen inje ●●

1952 Nasser overthrows King Farouk of Egypt ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Nasser and other army officers had overthrown King Farouk of Egypt in 1952 ●●

1952 Bolivian revolution installs the MNR government ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1952 that rarity had occurred—an armed popular revolt had defeated the military, displaced the oligarchy, nationalized the tin mines, instituted land reform, and set up a new government under the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario ●●

1952 Turing convicted of gross indecency ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Turing pleads guilty to charges of homosexuality and is sentenced to hormone treatment in lieu of prison. ●●

1952 Phosphate deposits discovered in Togo ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Phosphate deposits were found about eighteen miles from the sea in Togo, the culmination of French and British prospecting that Nkrumah says had been going on since 1884. ●●

1952 Bolivia nationalises the Patino tin mines ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Bolivian government nationalised the vast Patino Mines & Enterprises Consolidated holdings, vesting them in the new state-owned Corporacion Minera de Bolivia. ●●

9 November 1953 Independence of Cambodia 0 cit. no story Cambodia gains full independence from France under King Norodom Sihanouk, leaving French Indochina. politics ●●●

22 October 1953 Independence of Laos 0 cit. no story The Franco-Lao Treaty grants Laos full independence from France as a constitutional monarchy. politics ●●●

26 July 1953 to 1 January 1959 Cuban Revolution 0 cit. no story Fidel Castro's guerrilla movement overthrows the Batista dictatorship. The revolution creates the western hemisphere's first communist state and a flashpoint of the Cold War. politics / war ●●●●

1953 Central African Federation created and dissolved ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Rhodesias and Nyasaland were federated over native protests in 1953 as the Central African Federation, which broke up again in 1964. ●●

1953 CIA covert operations in Iran, Guatemala, Cuba ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley lists covert subversion under the Cold War umbrella, including CIA successes in Iran (1953) and Guatemala (1954) and the failed Cuban invasion of 1961. ●●

1953 Reece Committee investigates tax-exempt foundations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In July 1953 the 83rd Congress set up a Special Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations under Representative B. Carroll Reece. ●●

1953 Stalin's death breaks the Korean deadlock ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley writes that only the death of Stalin in March 1953 broke the stalemate that had prolonged the Korean armistice negotiations. ●●

1953 Korean armistice signed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Korean truce was signed on 27 July 1953 after 37 months of war in which the United States lost 25,000 dead, 115,000 other casualties, and about $22 billion. ●●

1953 Oppenheimer's classified papers seized ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The attack on Oppenheimer began in summer 1953; on 7 July the AEC, at Strauss's request, ordered that classified documents in his possession in Princeton be taken from him. ●●

1953 Borden's letter accusing Oppenheimer ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 7 November 1953 W. L. Borden wrote to J. Edgar Hoover asserting that Oppenheimer was probably an agent of the Soviet Union, triggering the security case against him. ●●

1953 Eisenhower inaugural speech signals 'unleashing' of Chiang Kai-shek ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In his January 1953 inaugural address, the new President Eisenhower implied he would remove restraints on Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist forces against Red China. Quigley argues the implications were misleading and that Dulles's policy largely continued Truman's line under loud denunciation of it. ●●

1953 'New Look' defense strategy adopted in NSC 162 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The National Security Council's strategic survey, NSC 162, embodied the Eisenhower administration's 'New Look' defense posture emphasizing nuclear retaliation over conventional forces. It was accepted by the President on October 30, 1953. ●●

1953 East Berlin workers' uprising ai_extracted 2 cit. no story On June 16, 1953, East Berlin workers rose against the Communist government amid relaxation encouraged by Beria. After a day's hesitation, Soviet occupation armored divisions crushed the revolt. ●●

1953 CIA directs overthrow of Mossadegh ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley claims the chief effort to crush Mossadegh in 1953 came from the CIA under the personal direction of Allen W. Dulles, brother of the secretary of state. He describes secret CIA funds used to turn the Tehran mobs against Mossadegh. ●●

1953 Commercial television arrives in Japan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Commercial television began in Japan in 1953 and spread rapidly, reaching 72 percent of urban houses by 1961. It was part of the new middle-class consumer life underpinning Japan's political and social stability. ●●

1953 Reece Committee on tax-exempt foundations set up ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book cites Quigley's account that the 83rd Congress created a Special Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations in July 1953, chaired by B. Carroll Reece. It frames this as an inquiry into the Network's interlocking foundations. ●●

1953 Eisenhower nominates Bohlen as ambassador to USSR ai_extracted 1 cit. no story intelligence— was next.54 Eisenhower had nominated Bohlen as U.S. ambassador to the USSR in February 1953, but the nomination had to be confirmed by the Senate before Bohlen could ... ●●

1953 Operation Ajax coup begins against Mossadegh ai_extracted 2 cit. no story In the early morning hours of August 15, 1953, an armored caravan set out through Tehran to execute the planned coup against Prime Minister Mossadegh. ●●

1953 Shah executes officers after the 1953 Iran coup ai_extracted 2 cit. no story AFTER THE 1953 COUP IN IRAN, THE TRIUMPHANT SHAH ORDERED THE execution of several dozen military officers and student leaders who had been closely ass (1953) ●●

1953 Stalin dies; Eisenhower finds CIA unprepared ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Stalin died March 5, 1953, one week after Dulles became director. Eisenhower was frustrated no detailed plans existed for this predictable event. ●●

1953 Soviet Union tests its first thermonuclear weapon ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Soviet Union tested first thermonuclear weapon in August 1953 with no American warning. Eisenhower considered preemptive nuclear strike. ●●

1953 CIA and Britain plan Mossadeq's overthrow in Iran ai_extracted 2 cit. no story British intelligence chief met Dulles to plan overthrow of Iranian PM Mossadeq. CIA made policy by default without White House approval. ●●

1953 CIA warns NSC of communist threat in Indonesia ai_extracted 1 cit. no story CIA submitted September 9, 1953 report to NSC warning Indonesia threatened by communism and recommending measures to topple Sukarno. ●●

1953 Dulles's first speech as Secretary of State ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John Foster Dulles gave his first speech as Secretary of State on national television, unveiling a map showing Soviet-dominated territory. ●●

1953 Mossadegh appeals to Eisenhower over oil ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Iranian PM Mossadegh sent a message to President Eisenhower seeking assistance in protecting Iran's oil nationalization. ●●

1953 Execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Convicted atomic spies Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed, hardening Eisenhower's Cold War image. ●●

1953 House subcommittee questions Dulles on CIA operations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A House Appropriations Committee subcommittee summoned Allen Dulles in spring 1953 to question CIA covert operations. ●●

1953 Morgan Stanley leads record GM debt issue ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Morgan Stanley presided over General Motors' record $300-million debt issue in 1953, demonstrating the firm's dominance in underwriting. ●●

1953 Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations published ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Ludwig Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations is published, introducing his concept of paradigms and language-games. This work influences Kuhn's thinking about how scientific communities use exemplars and shared practices. ●●

1953 Church of Scientology incorporated in Los Angeles ai_extracted 1 cit. no story the Church of Scientology was formally incorporated in Los Angeles. ●●

1953 Ramon Magsaysay elected Philippine president ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The high-point of this effort was the election to the presidency, in 1953,of Ramon Magsaysay, the cooperative former defense department head ●●

1953 Jozef Swiatlo defects to the West ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After Swiatlo defected in December 1953, East European intelligence services came to realize that he had been working for the other side all along ●●

1953 William Colby becomes CIA station chief in Italy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This is what I call techno-fascism.!5 William Colby, later Director of the CIA, arrived in Italy in 1953 as station chief and devoted the next five years of his life to financing and advising center/right organizations for the express purpose of indu ●●

1953 Terman creates the Stanford Industrial Park ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Stanford dean Fred Terman establishes an industrial park on university land, drawing tech firms like Hewlett-Packard close to campus. ●●

29 September 1954 Founding of CERN 0 cit. no story The convention of the European Organization for Nuclear Research enters into force, creating a shared physics laboratory near Geneva. CERN became the world's leading particle physics center and the birthplace of the World Wide Web. diplomacy / science ●●●

1 November 1954 to 19 March 1962 Algerian War 0 cit. no story The FLN fights France for Algerian independence in a war marked by torture, terrorism, and massive civilian death. Algeria wins independence in 1962 and the crisis brings down the French Fourth Republic. politics / war ●●●●

1954 'Bravo' thermonuclear test at Bikini ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 1 March 1954 the U.S. exploded its first real thermonuclear bomb at Bikini, a triple-stage fission-fusion-fission device that spread radioactive contamination over more than 8,000 square miles of the Pacific. ●●

1954 Quigley: the Teller 'father of the H-bomb' myth ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley argues that AEC secrecy under Strauss entrenched the false public belief that Teller fathered the H-bomb and had been held back by Soviet sympathizers, when the successful bomb followed a different design. ●●

1954 Dulles announces 'massive retaliation' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Dulles publicly announced the doctrine of massive retaliation, meaning nuclear reprisal by strategic bombing, in a speech to the Council on Foreign Relations on 12 January 1954. ●●

1954 SEATO signed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization was signed in 1954 with eight members, part of Dulles's ring of pacts meant to serve as triggers for American retaliation around the Soviet bloc. ●●

1954 Oppenheimer security hearings ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Oppenheimer's security clearance appeal was heard from 12 April to 6 May 1954, but the tribunal's use of secret data and the shifted burden of proof made the hearings unsatisfactory. ●●

1954 AEC ends Oppenheimer's clearance ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Following the hearing board's recommendation, the Atomic Energy Commission voted 4 to 1, with Henry Smyth dissenting, not to restore Robert Oppenheimer's security clearance, ending his career in government. ●●

1954 Secretary Wilson dismisses Soviet satellite race threat ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In November 1954, three years before Sputnik, Defense Secretary Charles Wilson brushed off a journalist's question about the Soviets winning the satellite race. Quigley uses the exchange to illustrate the administration's neglect of missile development. ●●

1954 Khrushchev launches the 'virgin lands' scheme ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In February 1954 Khrushchev proposed a radical plan to cultivate vast untilled grasslands in Asia to address chronic Soviet agricultural shortages. The scheme demanded enormous machinery and manpower and put responsibility for its success on Malenkov. ●●

1954 Fall of Dien Bien Phu ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The French fortress of Dien Bien Phu fell to the Viet Minh on May 7, 1954, opening a bitter debate in the French Assembly. It brought down Premier Joseph Laniel's government, the eighteenth cabinet to fall since 1945. ●●

1954 Geneva settlement partitions Indochina ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Indochinese settlement of July 20, 1954 was a compromise recognizing a Communist North Vietnam above the 17th parallel. The rest of Indochina remained as Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnam, associated with the French Union. ●●

1954 SEATO founded at Manila ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On September 8, 1954, eight nations signed an agreement bringing Southeast Asia into Dulles's network of pacts, establishing SEATO. The members made no specific commitments but set up a council for cooperation and extended protection to Laos, South Vietnam, and Cambodia. ●●

1954 Iranian oil dispute settled by 1954 consortium ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Iranian oil dispute was resolved by a compromise in October 1954 that placed exploitation and marketing under an international consortium, with a 40 percent interest held by AIOC. Iran's oil income rose to about $250 million a year. ●●

1954 Nasser replaces Naguib as Egypt's prime minister ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A civilian prime minister was replaced by General Naguib, who in turn was replaced by Nasser as prime minister on February 25, 1954. Nasser later took the presidency as well, driven by his thirst for personal power. ●●

1954 US-Japan Mutual Defense Alliance ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Mutual Defense Alliance with the United States, signed in March 1954, bound Japan to maintain a defense force of 275,000 men. Because this force conflicted with Article Nine of the constitution, the Socialists fought to keep enough seats to block amendment. ●●

1954 China publishes expansive border map, 1954 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley dates the start of Chinese border aggression to 1954, when Peking published a map showing China's frontier pushed deep into Tibet, India, and southeast Asia. ●●

1954 French Assembly rejects the EDC treaty, 1954 ai_extracted 2 cit. no story In August 1954 the Left and Right in the French Assembly joined to reject the European Defense Community treaty, killing the plan to merge German recruits into a European army. ●●

1954 Paris Treaties restore German sovereignty, 1954 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In December 1954 the French Assembly ratified the Paris Treaties. West Germany regained sovereign independence, gained the right to a national army, and became an equal member of NATO. ●●

1954 Hubbert introduces Peak Oil Theory ai_extracted 1 cit. no story M. King Hubbert introduced his Peak Oil Theory, that the earth was running out of oil, in 1954. Wood argues it became a foundation of the modern environmental and global-warming movements. ●●