Events, Verisoph

1911 Nairobi builds fingerprints, CID and criminal intelligence files 2 cit. Police training in Nairobi was paired with a fingerprint section in 1911, then a Criminal Intelligence Unit in 1926 to record criminals, undesirable persons and suspicious persons. This is where the Scotland Yard side of the inheritance matters: detective bureaucracy, fingerprints, files and political intelligence were built into the colonial police before independence. politics / society / technology ●●●

17 July 1912 Founding of World Athletics 0 cit. no story National federations meeting after the Stockholm Olympics found the International Amateur Athletic Federation to govern track and field and ratify world records. It is now known as World Athletics. culture / diplomacy / society ●●

28 November 1912 Independence of Albania 0 cit. no story Ismail Qemali declares Albania independent from the Ottoman Empire at Vlore during the First Balkan War. politics / war ●●●

1 January 1912 Proclamation of the Republic of China 0 cit. no story The Republic of China is proclaimed after the revolution that ended the Qing dynasty; its government has been based on Taiwan since 1949. politics / war ●●●

8 October 1912 to 30 May 1913 First Balkan War 1 cit. no story Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro drive the Ottoman Empire from almost all its European territory. The victors immediately quarrel over the spoils. war ●●●

5 February 1912 Founding of the Bank of China 0 cit. After the fall of the Qing dynasty, the imperial Da-Qing Bank is reorganized as the Bank of China under the new republic. It serves at times as central bank and foreign exchange bank, and today is one of China's big four state banks. economy / politics ●●●●

12 February 1912 Fall of the Qing Dynasty 0 cit. On 12 February 1912 the child emperor Puyi abdicated, ending the Qing dynasty and more than two thousand years of imperial rule in China. The Republic of China took its place. politics ●●●●●

1912 W.C. Handy publishes the blues 0 cit. W.C. Handy published Memphis Blues, one of the first blues songs to reach print. The blues carried the feeling of Black Southern life into the heart of American music. culture ●●●

c. 1912 Rise of the Ikhwan Movement 0 cit. Ibn Saud organized Bedouin tribesmen into settled Wahhabi military-religious communities called the Ikhwan. The Ikhwan became the shock troops of his conquest of Arabia. religion / war ●●●

1912 Founding of the Republic of China 0 cit. The Republic of China was proclaimed in 1912 with Sun Yat-sen as provisional president, and the boy emperor Puyi abdicated. China became a republic for the first time. politics ●●●●●

24 July 1912 First International Eugenics Congress meets in London 0 cit. Scientists and officials from many countries gathered to promote eugenics as a global movement. The congress helped spread policies of sterilization and racial ranking that had no sound scientific basis. politics / science ●●

1912 to 1913 Pujo Committee money-trust hearings 0 cit. A House subcommittee led by Arsene Pujo investigated concentrated control of finance, the so-called money trust, in 1912 and 1913. Morgan testified in December 1912, and the hearings fed support for banking reform. economy / politics ●●●

c. 1912 to c. 1925 Crowley Reshapes the Ordo Templi Orientis 0 cit. Aleister Crowley joined the OTO and rewrote its rituals around his religion of Thelema, later becoming its head. Under him the order became the main organizational carrier of Thelemic teaching. culture / religion ●●●

1912 Hercules Powder is named for the strongman hero of Greek myth 0 cit. Hercules Powder Company, spun off from DuPont in 1912, made explosives and took the name of Hercules, the Greek hero known for superhuman strength. economy / religion ●

1912 Woodrow Wilson wins the presidency, 1912 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A split in Big Business and in the Republican Party let the liberal East and agrarian West combine to elect Woodrow Wilson president in 1912. ●●

1912 Geoffrey Dawson becomes editor of The Times ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Geoffrey Dawson, a Milner private secretary in South Africa, became editor of The Times in 1912. Quigley treats his long editorship as a key lever of the group's influence. ●●

1912 Quigley dates Milner Group control of The Times to 1912 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts the Milner Group did not own The Times before 1922 but clearly controlled it as far back as 1912. He frames the paper as one of the group's chief instruments of influence. ●●

1912 Milner and Kerr speak in Canada (1912) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley notes that in 1912 Milner and Kerr went to Canada to address Round Table Groups. The trips were part of the Group's push for imperial organization among the Dominions. ●●

1912 Shailer Mathews publishes 'Scientific Management in the Churches' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites Shailer Mathews, dean of Chicago's School of Divinity, who wrote Scientific Management in the Churches in 1912. Mathews urged Protestant churches to adopt the structure and strategy of corporations. ●●

1912 Frederick Taylor testifies before Congress ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto quotes Frederick Winslow Taylor's 1912 congressional testimony on the correct way to shovel, using it to show how scientific management reduced workers to controlled motions later echoed in schooling. ●●

1912 Bobbitt publishes 'Elimination of Waste in Education' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites John Franklin Bobbitt's 1912 article 'Elimination of Waste in Education,' which argued that the Gary Plan schools were the work of businessmen applying scientific management. ●●

1912 Scott Nearing publishes The Super Race in 1912 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that in 1912 the writer Scott Nearing published The Super Race: An American Problem, framing the breeding of a super race as an engineering challenge. ●●

1912 Theodore Roosevelt's 1912 Progressive platform ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto argues that Theodore Roosevelt's 1912 Progressive Party platform was shaped by the ideas of Herbert Croly and Gaetano Mosca, urging the public to defer to experts. He treats it as part of a broader elite redefinition of democracy. ●●

1912 Edward Mandell House publishes Philip Dru: Administrator ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book notes House anonymously published the novel Philip Dru: Administrator in 1912, about a man who overthrows the US government and installs socialism. It uses the novel to characterize House's aims. ●●

1912 Woodrow Wilson wins the 1912 presidential election ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book asserts the Network split the Republican vote by backing Teddy Roosevelt so that Wilson won with only about 42 percent of the vote. It presents Taft's defeat as engineered. ●●

1912 Titanic sinks in the North Atlantic ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Morgan was in France when word spread that the Titanic had sunk on April 15, 1912, and with it the investment money Morgan had contributed on behalf of the shipping trust that... ●●

1912 Taft-Roosevelt split elects Woodrow Wilson ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The 1912 split between Taft and Roosevelt brought to power the man who had lectured Pierpont on his moral duty: Woodrow Wilson. ●●

1912 Carl Jung meets John D. Rockefeller at Kykuit ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In October 1912, psychoanalyst Carl Jung spent a day at Kykuit with Edith Rockefeller McCormick and met her father John D. Rockefeller. Jung formed a highly critical assessment of the oil magnate. ●●

March 1912 Scott's party dies returning from the Pole 0 cit. Robert Falcon Scott and his companions reach the South Pole a month after Amundsen, then perish on the march home. Their diaries, found with their bodies, made them tragic heroes of empire. exploration / society ●●●

1912 Einstein begins the Zurich Notebook on field equations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Beginning in summer 1912, Einstein struggled to develop gravitational field equations using tensors in his scratchpad notebook (the 'Zurich Notebook'). He pursued both physical and mathematical strategies simultaneously. ●●

13 April 1912 Royal Flying Corps formed 0 cit. Britain established the Royal Flying Corps as the air arm of the British Army, absorbing the earlier Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers. It flew reconnaissance and, increasingly, combat missions on the Western Front during the First World War. In 1918 it merged with the Royal Naval Air Service to create the Royal Air Force. technology / war ●

8 January 1912 African National Congress founded 0 cit. Black South African leaders, including lawyers and clergy, founded the South African Native National Congress in Bloemfontein to oppose racial discrimination and advocate for African political rights. The organization was renamed the African National Congress (ANC) in 1923. It would go on to become the central organization of the anti-apartheid struggle and South Africa's governing party after 1994. politics ●●●

1912 Birth of Alan Turing ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Alan Turing is born while his parents are on home leave from India. ●●

1912 Ernest Oppenheimer becomes mayor of Kimberley 0 cit. Ernest Oppenheimer was elected mayor of Kimberley, giving him political standing in the diamond town alongside his growing commercial interests. He used the position and his trade contacts to expand his influence over South African mining finance. politics ●

1912 Italy annexes Libya after war with Turkey ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Following an Anglo-French-Italian carve-up of North Africa, Italy went to war with Turkey and annexed Libya, ending centuries of Ottoman rule that Nkrumah traces back to the sixteenth century. ●●

16 July 1912 Herman Rosenthal murdered outside his protection dispute with police 0 cit. Gambler Herman Rosenthal, who had publicly accused a police lieutenant of extorting protection payments from his gambling operation, was shot dead outside the Hotel Metropole in Manhattan. The killing, arranged to silence him before he could testify, set off a major scandal implicating the police department in organized crime. politics ●●●

c. October 1912 Lieutenant Charles Becker convicted in the Rosenthal murder 0 cit. NYPD Lieutenant Charles Becker was tried and convicted of arranging Herman Rosenthal's murder to prevent him from exposing Becker's extortion of the city's gambling operators. Becker maintained his innocence, and his guilt was and remains debated by historians, but the case became the most prominent single instance of police corruption tied directly to a killing. politics ●●●

24 November 1912 The Basel Manifesto against war 0 cit. An extraordinary congress of the Second International, convened in Basel Cathedral as the Balkan Wars raised fears of a wider conflict, issues the Basel Manifesto. It warned governments that a European war would be met by the united resistance of the working class. Two years later most of the same parties backed their own nations in the First World War. diplomacy / politics / war ●●

1912 to 1913 The Balkan Wars 0 cit. A coalition of Balkan states drives the Ottomans out of nearly all their remaining European territory in the first war, then fights over the spoils in the second. The empire loses almost its entire European heartland and sees another huge wave of Muslim refugees. The defeats deepened the sense of crisis on the eve of World War I. politics / war ●●

1912 The D-Notice system asks the press to stay quiet 0 cit. Britain set up a joint committee of officials and newspaper editors that issued Defence Notices, requests to the press not to publish material said to endanger national security. The system was voluntary and had no legal force, but editors mostly complied. Supporters called it a sensible partnership; critics called it a polite form of censorship that trained the press to self-silence. politics / war ●●

c. 1912 DuPont builds the dashboard of the corporation 0 cit. Engineers and managers at DuPont developed the return-on-investment formula and a chart linking profit margin, asset turnover, and capital, giving head office a single number to judge every division. Combined with Frederick Taylor's scientific management, cost accounting became the nervous system of the big industrial firm, letting a few managers control sprawling operations from the top. economy / technology ●●

1912 The Third Home Rule crisis and the arming of Ulster 0 cit. A third Home Rule Bill passed in 1912 but was fiercely resisted by Ulster unionists, who signed a mass covenant and formed the armed Ulster Volunteers. Nationalists responded with their own Irish Volunteers, and both sides imported weapons. The country edged toward civil conflict before the First World War suspended the crisis in 1914. politics / war ●●

1912 The Native Authority Ordinance Empowers the Chiefs 2 cit. Building on the Village Headman Ordinance of 1902, the Native Authority Ordinance of 1912 gave the appointed chiefs and headmen legal power to issue binding orders, compel labour, and collect taxes, backed by the colonial courts and police. It turned the invented office of government chief into a formal instrument of colonial rule. These men, dependent on the state for their authority, became the first collaborator class that enforced tax, labour, and colonial law on their own people. politics / society ●●●

1912 Colonial banning of the Nyabingi cult 0 cit. After years of Nyabingi-led resistance, the British used witchcraft legislation to outlaw the cult and prosecute its mediums. Labeling the movement witchcraft let the state treat a religious network as simple crime and criminalize belief in the spirit itself. The Nyabingi name later traveled far and is often cited as one root of the word Rastafari, though that link is debated. politics / religion / society ●●

c. 1912 Cattle quarantines and veterinary control undermine the herders 0 cit. The colonial state used disease-control quarantines to block pastoralists from moving and selling stock, ostensibly to protect settler herds from cattle diseases. The rules cut herders off from markets and dry-season grazing while doing little for the pastoralists themselves. Framed as science, the quarantine regime worked in practice to hem in and impoverish the herding economies. economy / science ●●

c. 1912 Nubi soldiers settled at Kibera 6 cit. The Kenyan Nubians descend from Sudanese soldiers, the Nubi, who served the British in the King's African Rifles. From around 1912 the colonial government allotted them land on the edge of Nairobi as a military settlement, in a forested area they called Kibra, meaning bush or forest. Brought to Kenya as servants of empire, they were left as a community with no clear home of their own. politics / society ●●

11 January 1913 Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet wikidata 0 cit. no story treaty of mutual recognition and allegiance between the governments of Mongolia and Tibet ●●●

1913 Founding of the U.S. central bank ai_extracted 1 cit. The United States acquired a central bank as recently as 1913; until the advent of central banks, private banks printed and issued paper money whenever someone took out a loan. ●●●

1913 Founding of the U.S. Federal Reserve ai_extracted 1 cit. The Federal Reserve was founded in 1913, half privately owned, after Congress was persuaded that a central bank could bail out banks in a crisis. ●●●●

23 December 1913 Federal Reserve Act signed 0 cit. President Woodrow Wilson signs the Federal Reserve Act, creating a central bank for the United States. The new system underpins the dollar's rise to global dominance. economy / politics ●●●

29 June 1913 to 10 August 1913 Second Balkan War 0 cit. no story Bulgaria attacks its former allies over the division of Macedonia and is quickly defeated by Serbia, Greece, Romania, and the Ottomans. The unstable settlement feeds the tensions that explode in 1914. war ●●●

23 December 1913 Founding of the Federal Reserve 0 cit. President Wilson signs the Federal Reserve Act, creating a central banking system of twelve regional banks after the Panic of 1907 exposed the need for a lender of last resort. The Fed becomes the most influential central bank in the world. economy / politics ●●●●●

1 December 1913 Ford launches the moving assembly line 0 cit. Ford installs the first moving assembly line for cars at its Highland Park plant, cutting Model T chassis assembly from over 12 hours to about 93 minutes. Mass production transforms manufacturing worldwide. economy / technology ●●●●

3 February 1913 Ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment 0 cit. The amendment gives Congress clear power to tax incomes without apportioning the tax among the states, overriding an 1895 Supreme Court ruling. The modern income tax follows within months and becomes the government's main revenue source. economy / politics ●●●●

4 March 1913 Founding of the Department of Labor 0 cit. On his last day in office, President Taft signs the act splitting Commerce and Labor and creating a separate Department of Labor to promote the welfare of wage earners. It later administers labor statistics, workplace standards, and unemployment programs. economy / society ●●●

1913 The moving assembly line 0 cit. Ford introduced a moving assembly line that brought the work to the worker and slashed the time to build a car. Mass production lowered prices and became the model for modern manufacturing. economy / technology ●●●●

1913 India's first feature film 0 cit. Raja Harishchandra, directed by Dadasaheb Phalke, was India's first full-length feature. It launched what would become the world's largest film industry. culture ●●●

23 December 1913 Federal Reserve Act of 1913 0 cit. President Woodrow Wilson signed the Federal Reserve Act, creating a central banking system with twelve regional reserve banks. It gave the United States a lasting institution to manage credit and currency. economy / politics ●●●●●

c. May 1913 Saudi Conquest of Al-Hasa 0 cit. Ibn Saud took the eastern province of Al-Hasa from the Ottomans, extending Saudi rule to the Persian Gulf coast. The region later proved to hold vast oil reserves. politics / war ●●●

9 September 1913 Bosch scales up ammonia production at Oppau 0 cit. Carl Bosch turned Haber's laboratory reaction into a full industrial process at a BASF plant. The Haber-Bosch process made fertilizer on a scale that fed a growing world population. economy / technology ●●●●●

1 December 1913 Ford starts the moving assembly line 0 cit. Ford installed a moving assembly line at Highland Park that carried cars past stationary workers. It cut the time to build a Model T from hours to minutes and made mass production the industrial standard. economy / technology ●●●●●

14 May 1913 Rockefeller Foundation is chartered 0 cit. The Rockefeller Foundation was chartered in New York in May 1913 to promote the well-being of people worldwide. It became one of the most influential philanthropic bodies of the twentieth century. science / society ●●●●

31 March 1913 J.P. Morgan dies in Rome 0 cit. John Pierpont Morgan died in Rome in March 1913. Control of the bank passed to his son, J.P. Morgan Jr. economy ●●●

23 December 1913 Founding of the US Federal Reserve 0 cit. The Federal Reserve Act created a central banking system for the United States after repeated banking panics, most recently the Panic of 1907. It set up twelve regional reserve banks, of which the New York Fed became the most influential. economy / politics ●●●●

1913 New York Federal Reserve Bank established, 1913 ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Quigley observes that America's central bank, the New York Federal Reserve Bank, was set up late, in 1913, only becoming powerful after financial capitalism had begun to fade. ●●

1913 South African Land Act, 1913 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The 1913 Land Act reserved about 7 percent of South Africa's land for native purchase and 93 percent for whites, though the native population outnumbered whites at least fourfold. ●●

1913 Foreign loan makes Yuan Shih-kai independent (1913) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Yuan Shih-kai's power rested chiefly on a 25 million pound loan from Britain, France, Russia, and Japan in 1913, which freed him from the assembly and Sun Yat-sen's Kuomintang. ●●

1913 J.M. Rice publishes 'Scientific Management in Education' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that muckraker J.M. Rice published Scientific Management in Education in 1913, part of a national push to apply efficiency methods to schooling. ●●

1913 Congress creates a commission to investigate foundations, 1913 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto reports that in 1913 the 62nd Congress created a commission to investigate the Carnegie, Rockefeller, and other corporate foundations, which concluded they were extending control over education. ●●

1913 John Watson issues the Behaviorist Manifesto, 1913 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that John Watson's 1913 'Behaviorist Manifesto' promoted a utilitarian psychology aimed at the prediction and control of behavior. ●●

1913 Income tax and central bank enacted under Wilson ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book says that before the end of 1913 both the income tax and the central bank became reality under Wilson. It frames these as funding and leverage mechanisms for the Network. ●●

1913 Federal income tax and Federal Reserve System of 1913 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book calls the federal income tax and the Federal Reserve System the Network's two crowning achievements of 1913. It argues both gave the Network power to confiscate and create money. ●●

1913 Lusitania secretly converted to an armed cruiser ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book says the Lusitania, designed to Admiralty specifications, was armored and entered as an armed auxiliary cruiser in 1913. It argues passengers were unknowingly mixed with munitions. ●●

1913 Carl Jung's misdiagnosis of Montagu Norman ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In April 1913 the young psychiatrist Carl Jung told Montagu Norman he had 'general paralysis of the insane' from tertiary syphilis and would soon die. It was an egregious misdiagnosis of the future Bank of England governor's manic depression. ●●

1913 Federal Reserve Act signed into law ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After years of debate, Carter Glass's decentralized plan for regional Federal Reserve Banks won over New York bankers. President Woodrow Wilson signed the Federal Reserve Act on 23 December 1913. ●●

1913 The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 ai_extracted 1 cit. The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 was a political compromise. It vested decisions over interest rates and credit in twelve banker-dominated regional reserve banks, overseen by a central Board of Governors in Washington. ●●

1913 Wilson signs the Federal Reserve Act ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After six more months of haggling over minor details, Wilson signed the Federal Reserve Act into law on December 23, 1913, establishing the twelve-bank Federal Reserve System and... ●●

1913 J.P. Morgan dies in Rome ai_extracted 1 cit. Six weeks after the report was issued and just past midnight on March 31, 1913, Morgan died at the Grand Hotel in Rome. His partners attributed the death of the great titan to... ●●

1913 Islamic university opens in Medina ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Islamic university opened in Medina ●●

1913 Ambassadors draw Balkan borders at London conference ai_extracted 1 cit. no story European ambassadors draw borders for Balkan states in London ●●

1913 Wilson signs the Federal Reserve Act ai_extracted 2 cit. no story In December 1913, President Wilson signed the Federal Reserve Act, providing the government with a central bank and freeing it of reliance on the House of Morgan in emergencies; the new Federal Reserv... ●●

1913 New Haven train wreck kills seven at Stamford ai_extracted 1 cit. no story That Pierpont’s sins would be visited on Jack became evident on June 12, 1913, when a New Haven collision at the Stamford station killed seven passengers. Wilson’s new attorney general, James C. ●●

1913 Sixteenth Amendment ratified, income tax established ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1913, the Sixteenth Amendment was ratified; the following year, income taxes soared, and the Federal Trade Commission was created. Jack accepted the changes bitterly. ●●

1913 Second publication of The Book of the Law ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Crowley arranged for the second publication of The Book of the Law in September 1913. He believed this event, combined with his focused magical will, caused significant world disruption and initiated the conditions that led to World War I. ●●

1913 Wilson's first State of the Union Address ai_extracted 1 cit. no story t than vindication of its principles. In Wilson’s first State of the Union Address, on December 2, 1913, he laid down the outline of what later came t ●●

1913 Besso helps Einstein study Mercury's orbit ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In June 1913, Michele Besso visited Einstein in Berlin, and they produced over fifty pages of notes studying how the Entwurf theory accorded with Mercury's orbital anomaly, calculating only 18 seconds of arc per century instead of 43. ●●

1913 Einstein and Grossmann publish the Entwurf theory ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In May 1913, Einstein and Grossmann produced the Entwurf ('Outline of a Generalized Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of Gravitation'), a sketchy alternative theory based on physical strategy rather than mathematical formalism. ●●

1913 Ford develops the moving assembly line ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The moving line was first tried in assembling the flywheel magneto, then other parts of the engine, next the engine itself, and finally, in October 19 ●●

1913 Federal Reserve allows national banks foreign branches ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1913, for example, the Federal Reserve permitted national banks to open branches abroad ●●

1913 Death of J.P. Morgan Sr. ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Griffin notes that when J.P. Morgan Sr. died in 1913, people were shocked to realize the extent of his control over American finance and politics during the previous decades. ●●

1913 South Africa establishes the South African Police 0 cit. The South African Police was formed as a national force shortly after the Union of South Africa's creation, and over subsequent decades it became a central instrument for enforcing racial segregation, formalized as apartheid after 1948. Police units used pass laws, forced removals, and detention without trial to suppress Black South Africans and anti-apartheid activists. Units such as the security police carried out torture and killings of detainees, documented later by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. politics ●●●

19 June 1913 Natives Land Act restricts African land ownership 0 cit. The Natives Land Act barred Black South Africans, roughly two-thirds of the population, from buying or leasing land outside designated reserves, which made up less than ten percent of the country's land. The law forced many Black farmers into wage labor or tenancy on white-owned farms and mines. It became one of the foundational pieces of segregationist legislation later expanded under apartheid. economy / politics ●●●

31 May 1913 Mombasa Lodge consecrated 0 cit. Mombasa Lodge No. 3645 was consecrated on 31 May 1913 under the English constitution, giving the coastal port its own Masonic lodge distinct from the earlier Nairobi and Zanzibar foundations. Mombasa's role as the colony's main port and a mixed British, Arab, and Indian trading town gave its lodge a somewhat different membership base than the upcountry railway and settler lodges. A Freemasons' Hall was later built in Mombasa to house the lodge. economy / society ●●

1913 Averell Harriman is tapped for Skull and Bones 0 cit. Averell Harriman, later a US ambassador and Governor of New York, was tapped into Skull and Bones in 1913. This is documented in Yale and Skull and Bones membership records. politics / society ●●

1913 Britain and Germany draft partition of Portuguese Africa ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Britain and Germany initialled an agreement to divide up Portugal's African colonies between themselves, a scheme only derailed by the outbreak of the First World War, which Nkrumah offers as proof the great powers treated Portuguese Africa as bargaining chips. ●●

1913 Ouenza iron ore mining begins in Algeria ai_extracted 1 cit. no story French company La Société de l'Ouenza began exploiting the Djebel Ouenza iron deposits in southern Algeria, a concession that by 1960 had shipped 46 million tons of ore to Europe and America. ●●

c. 1 January 1913 Sterilization Laws Spread Across the States 0 cit. Following Indiana and California, states including New Jersey, Iowa, New York, North Dakota, Michigan, Kansas, Wisconsin, Nebraska, and Oregon passed compulsory sterilization laws in the years before World War I. By the 1930s, roughly thirty states had enacted eugenic sterilization statutes, backed by the American Eugenics Society and state boards of health. politics / science / society ●●

c. 1913 Suppression of the Giriama uprising 0 cit. When the Giriama resisted taxation, labour demands, and colonial control, the British launched a punitive campaign in 1913 and 1914, burning the sacred Kaya shrine, imposing heavy fines, and forcing removals. The resistance was linked to the prophetess Mekatilili wa Menza, who was arrested and detained. Police and administration forces enforced the crackdown. religion / war ●●

4 June 1913 Emily Davison killed at the Epsom Derby 0 cit. Suffragette Emily Davison ran onto the racecourse and was struck by the King's horse, dying of her injuries days later. Whether she meant to sacrifice her life is still debated, but her death became a rallying symbol for the vote. politics / society ●●

1913 The Congo Reform Association declares victory and closes 0 cit. Judging that Belgian reforms had ended the worst of the forced-labor system, the Congo Reform Association wound up its work. Morel went on to other causes, and Casement was later executed by Britain for his role in the Irish independence struggle, a turn that complicated his memory. The association left a model for later international human rights campaigns, even as colonial rule in the Congo continued. politics / society ●●