Events, Verisoph

1919 Rowlatt Act passed (March 1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The conservative group pushed through the Rowlatt Act in March 1919, continuing wartime restrictions on civil liberties to control nationalist agitation, prompting Gandhi to call for civil disobedience. ●●

1919 Amritsar Massacre (April 13, 1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story General Dyer fired into a dense, penned-in crowd at Amritsar, inflicting 1,516 casualties including 379 deaths, an atrocity the Hunter Committee declined to fully condemn. ●●

1919 Postwar blockade blamed for 800,000 deaths (1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley cites Max Sering that the blockade of Germany, continued for nine months after the armistice, caused the deaths of 800,000 persons. ●●

1919 Council of Four drafts the Treaty of Versailles (1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Council of Four (Lloyd George, Wilson, Clemenceau, Orlando) held over two hundred meetings from March to June 1919 and put the Treaty of Versailles into form in three weeks. ●●

1919 Treaty of Versailles signed at the Hall of Mirrors (June 28, 1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On June 28, 1919, five years after Sarajevo, the Treaty of Versailles was signed in the Hall of Mirrors, where the German Empire had been proclaimed in 1871, by all delegations except the Chinese. ●●

1919 France drafts a strong League with its own army (1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the first League committee meeting in 1919 France sought a League with its own army, general staff, and police powers against aggressors, a proposal the Anglo-Americans rejected as militarism. ●●

1919 Third (Communist) International formed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The anti-nationalist minority of Socialists, chiefly Germans and Russians, became the nucleus of the Third, or Communist, International, formed under Russian leadership in 1919. ●●

1919 Weimar constitution drafted ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The National Assembly elected on June 19, 1919, drew up a parliamentary constitution under Professor Hugo Preuss, providing a president, a bicameral legislature, and a cabinet responsible to the lower house. ●●

1919 German Workers' Party founded ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The German Workers' Party was founded by Munich locksmith Anton Drexler on January 5, 1919, as a nationalist, Pan-German workers' group. Hitler joined it later that year. ●●

1919 Brand serves as a financial adviser at the Paris Peace Conference ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, R. H. Brand was financial adviser to Lord Robert Cecil, chairman of the Supreme Economic Council. Quigley presents him as a central figure in postwar international finance. ●●

1919 Curtis a chief founder of the Royal Institute of International Affairs ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley credits Curtis as one of the chief founders of the Royal Institute of International Affairs in 1919. Through the 1920s Curtis worked on it and the League without attracting public attention. ●●

1919 Dawson quarrels with Northcliffe and leaves The Times ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1919 Dawson quarreled with proprietor Lord Northcliffe and left the editor's chair. Quigley says the episode showed the group it could not control The Times without owning it. ●●

1919 Commons motion for subordinate legislatures (4 June 1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 4 June 1919 Edward Wood moved in the Commons that the time had come to create subordinate legislatures within the United Kingdom, carried 187 to 34. Quigley says nothing came of it. ●●

1919 Ministry of Health established (1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley credits Milner's wartime reconstruction committee with producing the Ministry of Health, set up in 1919. He treats it as one of the Group's lasting marks on British social policy. ●●

1919 RIIA organized at the Hotel Majestic (30 May 1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Institute was organized at a joint conference of British and American experts at the Hotel Majestic on 30 May 1919, during the Paris Peace Conference. Quigley says the real decisions were made by the Milner Group. ●●

1919 Quigley: Council on Foreign Relations taken over by the Morgan group (1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts the New York Council on Foreign Relations, RIIA's American branch, was taken over almost entirely after its 1919 founding by the Peace Conference experts closest to J. P. Morgan and Company. ●●

1919 Government of India Act becomes law (December 1919) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After heavy criticism and revision, the Government of India Bill emerged with its main outlines unchanged and became law in December 1919. Quigley says its principles of dyarchy and responsibility were Curtis's. ●●

1919 Amritsar Massacre ai_extracted 1 cit. Quigley cites the 1919 Amritsar Massacre as the chief bit of bad luck that wrecked Indian cooperation with the reforms of that year, turning Gandhi against the British. ●●

1919 Draft Treaty of Versailles presented to Germany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The original draft treaty was handed to the German delegates, who were aghast at its severity and drew up a 443-page criticism. Concessions were later made under pressure Quigley traces back to the Milner Group. ●●

1919 Quigley: Milner Group's appeasement began in 1919 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that the Cliveden Set was only the visible face of the Milner Group, and that the Group's program of appeasement and treaty revision began as early as 1919, not the mid-1930s. ●●

1919 Quigley: Cecil Hurst drafts loopholes into the Covenant ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that at the Peace Conference Cecil Hurst persuaded the American expert David Hunter Miller to replace the sanction articles 10-16 with Hurst's own drafts, deliberately built with loopholes so sanctions need never bite. ●●

1919 Term 'technocracy' first used publicly by W.H. Smythe ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The word technocracy was first used publicly by W.H. Smythe in a 1919 article titled Industrial Management. ●●

1919 Veblen helps found the New School ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Economist Thorstein Veblen helped found the New School for Social Research in 1919. It was there he met Howard Scott, later leader of the U.S. Technocracy movement. ●●

1919 Veblen and Scott start the Technical Alliance ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1919 Thorstein Veblen and Howard Scott formed the Technical Alliance to organize a 'soviet of technicians'. Wood calls it a precursor to the Technocracy movement. ●●

1919 Calhoun's Social History of the Family ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites Arthur Calhoun's 1919 Social History of the Family, which announced that the child was passing from its family into the custody of community experts. ●●

1919 Cubberley publishes 'Public Education in the United States' ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Gatto uses Ellwood P. Cubberley's celebratory history, first published in 1919 and revised in 1934, as an insider source on the compulsion campaign. He argues it reveals more than Cubberley intended. ●●

1919 Wave of anti-Bolshevik education laws, 1919 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that by 1919 many states passed laws against Bolshevism, including English-only instruction and criminal penalties in Idaho and Utah for skipping Americanization classes. ●●

1919 John Dewey founds the Progressive Education Association, 1919 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that in 1919, using Rockefeller money, John Dewey founded the Progressive Education Association while a professor at Columbia Teachers College. ●●

1919 Royal Institute of International Affairs founded ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book asserts, following Quigley, that the Network formed the Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House) in 1919 as a front group. It says similar institutes followed in British dominions and the United States. ●●

1919 US Senate rejects the League of Nations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book says that in November 1919, after months of debate, the US Senate voted not to join the League of Nations over concerns about ceding sovereignty. It calls this the point where the Network's League effort came up short. ●●

1919 Milner Group begins undermining the peace settlement ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book cites Quigley that the Milner Group began a program of appeasement and revision of the post-war settlement as early as 1919. It presents this as a deliberate move to rebuild Germany. ●●

1919 The Paris Peace Conference opens ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Paris Peace Conference opened in January 1919 to settle the terms of peace. No issue caused more trouble and delay than German reparations. ●●

1919 Versailles terms unveiled to Germany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In May 1919 the peace terms were presented to Germany, which was to lose an eighth of its territory, disarm, and pay reparations. Article 231, the 'article of shame,' branded Germany solely responsible for the war. ●●

1919 Keynes publishes 'The Economic Consequences of the Peace' ai_extracted 3 cit. In November 1919 John Maynard Keynes published his attack on reparations, arguing that a ruined Germany could never pay. The book sold over 100,000 copies in six months and made him world-famous. ●●

1919 US Senate rejects the Treaty of Versailles ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As America turned isolationist, the peace treaty failed in the Senate. On 19 November 1919 it was rejected by a vote of 55 to 39, keeping the United States out of the postwar European settlement. ●●

1919 Keynes begins speculating on currencies ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the latter half of 1919, Keynes bet that wartime inflation would undermine belligerent currencies. He went short on the French franc, German Reichsmark, and Italian lira while buying currencies of countries that had sat out the war. ●●

1919 Senator Edge introduces the Edge Act ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Based on Lamont’s earlier disposition toward private assistance, Senator Walter Evans Edge introduced Senate Bill 2472 (which became the Edge Act of 1919), authorizing American... ●●

1919 Paris Peace Conference opens ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In all, thirty-two nations were involved in the Paris Peace Conference, which began in January 1919 (Germany was not included). But the Big Four—President Wilson, British prime... ●●

1919 Mackenzie King elected Canadian Liberal leader ai_extracted 2 cit. no story In 1919, he was elected leader of the Liberal Party in Canada and two years later became prime minister, serving in that post off and on for a record twenty-two years and forging much of the modern Canadian welfare state. ●●

1919 Hamburg City Council elected in free, secret elections ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The revolutionaries made little headway with the food and fuel shortages and the growing ranks of jobless workers. On March 26, 1919, the City Council—henceforth to be elected in free, secret election... ●●

1919 Germany signs the Treaty of Versailles ai_extracted 1 cit. no story He said he thought it best if the government had advisers who were in agreement with its policies. The new Cabinet consented to the Allied terms, and on June 28, 1919, a new German delegation signed t... ●●

1919 Weimar Assembly adopts the German constitution ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Of the one hundred billion mark offer, he said, “Well, they are not getting even that now. They have surprises awaiting them.”30 On July 31, 1919, the Weimar Assembly adopted a constitution. ●●

1919 Weber defines the state as the monopoly on force 0 cit. Max Weber defines the modern state as the body that successfully claims a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force within a territory. It names the core of the state, law, and coercion pillar: the sole right to command violence and call it law. pillar / politics ●●●●

1919 Woodrow Wilson proposes the League of Nations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Woodrow Wilson brings a vision of liberal world order to the post-World War I settlement, anchored in the League of Nations proposal ●●

1919 Soviet Bureau established in New York ai_extracted 2 cit. no story The Soviet Bureau is established in early 1919 in the World Tower Building at 110 West 40th Street, New York City, to represent Soviet interests in the United States. ●●

1919 State Department blocks Soviet Bureau business dealings ai_extracted 2 cit. no story On May 7, 1919, the State Department intervenes to prevent continued business intervention on behalf of the Soviet Bureau by American firms. ●●

1919 Congressman Mason introduces House Resolution 132 ai_extracted 2 cit. no story On June 23, 1919, Congressman Mason introduces House Resolution 132 instructing the State Department to investigate Wall Street banking connections to the Bolsheviks. ●●

1919 Charles Fort publishes The Book of the Damned ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Paranormal researcher Charles Fort published his first book, The Book of the Damned, cataloguing reports of strange anomalies from newspapers worldwide including floating airships, frogs falling from the sky, and spontaneous combustion, to challenge scientific materialism and orthodoxy. ●●

1919 Russo-Polish War ends in Russian defeat ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Russo-Polish War of 1919-1920 ended with a Russian defeat, demonstrating weakened Russian military capacity after the civil war. ●●

1919 Wilson presents League Covenant to Peace Conference ai_extracted 1 cit. no story y such attitudes would resolve crises without war, Wilson told the Peace Conference on February 14, 1919: …throughout this instrument [the League Cove ●●

1919 Bela Kun establishes Hungarian Soviet Republic ai_extracted 1 cit. no story when Lenin’s Hungarian protégé Bela Kun and his Communist and Social Democratic followers established a shortlived Soviet republic in Hungary in the disordered aftermath of Austro-Hungarian defeat, Szilard decided it was time to study abroad. ●●

1919 Greek-Turkish War and population exchange in Asia Minor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Thus the mixed Greek and Turkish populations in Asia Minor and the eastern Aegean who had lived side by side since the time of the Byzantine Empire sorted themselves out during the Greek-Turkish War of 1919–1922. ●●

1919 Ho Chi Minh appeals to US over French Indochina ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1919, following the First World War, Ho Chi Minh had appealed to US Secretary of State Robert Lansing for America’s help in achieving basic civil liberties and an improvement in the living conditions for the colonial subjects of French Indochina ●●

November 1919 Palmer Raids target suspected radicals across the United States 0 cit. Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, working with a young J. Edgar Hoover, directed federal agents and local police in a series of raids that arrested thousands of suspected anarchists and communists, many without warrants. Several hundred foreign-born detainees were deported with little due process. The raids are widely cited as an early instance of American federal law enforcement being used to suppress political dissent rather than investigate specific crimes. politics ●●

c. 1919 Red Summer race riots 0 cit. White mobs attacked Black communities in dozens of American cities, including Chicago, Washington D.C., and Elaine, Arkansas, in the summer and fall of 1919. Hundreds of Black Americans were killed, and the violence was often triggered by Black economic advancement and returning Black veterans asserting their rights. The events showed that segregation was enforced by mob violence as well as by law. society ●●

c. 1919 Anglo American acquires major diamond interests in South West Africa 0 cit. Anglo American, through related companies, took control of the rich alluvial diamond fields in South West Africa that had been developed under German rule. This gave Oppenheimer a diamond-producing base independent of De Beers, strengthening his position for a future merger. economy ●●

1919 Mussolini's National Fascist Party takes its name and emblem from the fasces 0 cit. Benito Mussolini's movement adopts the fasces as its namesake symbol, and the party takes the name 'Fascism' from it, permanently associating the ancient Roman emblem in the 20th-century public mind with Italian Fascism, even though the symbol continued to appear unrelated on older American civic monuments predating this association. politics / war ●●

1919 France gains control of the Saar coal and chemical industries ai_extracted 1 cit. no story French capitalists secured control of the Saar's coal and chemical industries as a reparations prize after the First World War, only for a later plebiscite to return the territory to Germany. ●●

28 January 1919 Weber Delivers Politics as a Vocation 0 cit. In a lecture to students in Munich, later published as "Politics as a Vocation," the sociologist Max Weber defined the state as the human community that successfully claims a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory. Weber's definition became the standard reference point in political science and sociology for distinguishing legitimate state violence, such as policing and lawful warfare, from illegitimate private violence. The lecture is one of the most cited texts in the modern study of the state and organized force. politics / society ●●●

31 January 1919 J.T. Canales opens legislative investigation of the Rangers 0 cit. State representative José Tomás (J.T.) Canales, a Democrat from Brownsville and the only Mexican American in the Legislature, filed formal charges against the Texas Rangers and forced a joint legislative hearing into Ranger conduct. Canales brought twenty-one charges covering murder, torture, and other abuses, later expanded with complaints from other legislators. The hearings ran over twelve days, took testimony from about eighty witnesses, and produced roughly 1,400 pages of record. politics ●●●

c. March 1919 Canales investigation concludes with reforms, no convictions 0 cit. The joint legislative committee formally cleared the Rangers of legal wrongdoing and commended the adjutant general, even as the hearing record documented extensive abuse. Despite the exoneration, the Legislature cut the force's size, raised pay and recruiting standards to professionalize it, disbanded the wartime "Loyalty Ranger" companies that had been used for extralegal policing, and adopted new conduct rules; several Rangers named in the hearings were dismissed. Canales received death threats for bringing the charges and needed armed protection during the proceedings. politics ●●

1 November 1919 Government Code and Cypher School founded 0 cit. The Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) was formed by merging the Royal Navy's Room 40 and the War Office's MI1b codebreaking units. It handled British signals intelligence between the wars and through the Second World War. GC&CS is the direct ancestor of GCHQ. politics / technology ●●

9 September 1919 Boston Police Strike and the State Guard 0 cit. When most of the Boston police force walked off the job, looting broke out and Governor Calvin Coolidge called out the Massachusetts State Guard to restore order, resulting in several deaths in clashes with crowds. Coolidge's declaration that there is no right to strike against the public safety by anybody, anywhere, any time made him a national figure. The episode became a touchstone case for using militia forces to end a public-sector strike. economy / politics ●●

1919 Forced labour and the Northey circulars 0 cit. Labour circulars issued under Governor Edward Northey from 1919 pressed administration officers and police to encourage, and in practice compel, Africans to work on settler farms and public projects. The pressure amounted to forced labour and drew protest from missionaries and questions in Britain. Police and chiefs' forces supplied and disciplined the labour. economy / politics ●●

13 April 1919 Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar 0 cit. British troops under General Dyer fired on an unarmed crowd trapped in an enclosed garden, killing hundreds. The massacre shocked Indian opinion and destroyed much remaining faith in British rule. It pushed many moderates, including Gandhi, toward outright demands for independence. politics / war ●●

12 September 1919 to 1920 D'Annunzio seizes Fiume 0 cit. The poet Gabriele D'Annunzio leads war veterans to occupy the disputed city of Fiume and rules it for over a year. His theatrical politics of black shirts, balcony speeches, and the Roman salute supplied a template that Mussolini later borrowed. politics / war ●●

c. 1919 Seeds of the independence movements 0 cit. Colonial rule created a class of educated Africans, shared grievances, and new networks that later powered the drive for independence. Pan-African congresses from 1919 onward and figures across the diaspora began linking these struggles. The resistance of the scramble years, from Adwa to Maji Maji, became a source of pride for later nationalists. culture / politics / society ●●

January 1919 The First Dáil and the War of Independence 0 cit. After a landslide win in the 1918 election, Sinn Féin members refused to sit at Westminster and set up their own parliament, the First Dáil, in January 1919. On the same day the Irish Republican Army began a guerrilla war against British forces and police. The conflict, marked by ambushes and reprisals including the Black and Tans, lasted until a truce in July 1921. politics / war ●●●

1919 The American Black Chamber 0 cit. Herbert O. Yardley set up a secret US code-breaking bureau, funded by the State and War Departments, that read the encrypted cables of foreign governments. It cracked Japanese diplomatic traffic and fed Washington its rivals' negotiating positions. Secretary of State Henry Stimson shut it down in 1929, reportedly saying that gentlemen do not read each other's mail. diplomacy / politics / war ●●

c. 1919 Enoch Mgijima and the Israelites 0 cit. The prophet Enoch Mgijima founded the Israelites, a millenarian church whose followers gathered on land at Ntabelanga to await the end of days. They refused to disperse or to recognize the authority of the state over their holy ground. Their stand set up the confrontation that would end in the Bulhoek massacre. politics / religion / society ●●

1919 The Soldier Settlement Scheme After the Great War 0 cit. After the First World War the government threw open highland land to British ex-servicemen through a lottery scheme, hoping to plant a larger, loyal white population. Thousands of new farms were carved out, many on land recently used by Africans, and the European population climbed sharply. The scheme deepened the alienation of African land and sharply increased the demand for squatter and wage labour to work the new farms. economy / politics / war ●●

1919 Forced Labour and the Reserves as Labour Pools 1 cit. In 1919 Governor Edward Northey issued circulars pressing African chiefs and officials to round up men to work on settler farms, a thinly veiled system of forced labour that stirred protest even in Britain. Taxes payable only in cash, together with land shortage in the reserves, pushed men out to earn wages on white farms whether they wished to or not. The reserves were designed to work as reservoirs of cheap labour, crowded enough that people had to leave to survive. economy / politics ●●

c. 1919 The Somali and the Struggle Over Status 0 cit. Kenyan Somalis pressed the colonial state to class them as non-native, alongside Arabs and Asians, seeking to escape the taxes, the kipande pass, and the labour demands imposed on other Africans. The administration's shifting answers left them in an ambiguous middle, neither settler nor ordinary subject, a status historians link to their later sense of not belonging in Kenya. Their contested place in the colonial order fed grievances that would surface again at independence. politics / society ●●

February 1919 First Pan-African Congress meets during the Paris peace talks 0 cit. W. E. B. Du Bois organized the first Pan-African Congress in Paris while the victorious powers negotiated the postwar settlement at Versailles. With the help of the Senegalese deputy Blaise Diagne, delegates petitioned the peacemakers to protect African interests and grant a greater say to colonized peoples. Its demands were reformist and modest, seeking better colonial rule rather than independence. diplomacy / politics ●●

c. 1919 The Raj keeps Gandhi under surveillance 0 cit. British India's Intelligence Bureau and police tracked Mohandas Gandhi for decades, logging his movements, intercepting his mail and reporting on his campaigns. Surveillance followed him from his years in South Africa through the mass movements he led in India. The colonial state treated the apostle of non-violence as a standing threat to order. politics / society ●●

1919 The utilities' peacetime propaganda drive against public ownership ai_extracted 1 cit. The National Electric Light Association ran a long campaign to keep the power supply in private hands. Editor Mark Crispin Miller records it as the largest peacetime propaganda drive in U.S. history, aimed at discouraging public ownership of utilities. ●●

1919 Optimist International takes shape 0 cit. Delegates from several existing Optimist clubs met and formed Optimist International, adopting a program of community service focused on young people. The clubs grew out of earlier local groups founded in the previous decade. Like its peers, Optimist combined business fellowship with volunteer projects for children and youth. society ●

October 1919 Wilson's stroke and the hidden presidency 0 cit. A severe stroke left Wilson partly paralysed and secluded for the rest of his term. His wife Edith decided who and what reached him and effectively managed the flow of government, a genuine hidden presidency the public was never told about. ●●●

c. 1919 Soldier settlers occupy surveyed farms in Trans-Nzoia 1 cit. After the First World War, a soldier-settlement scheme placed demobilised European soldiers on surveyed farms in Trans-Nzoia. The scheme helped make the district one of the strongest settler farming zones in the White Highlands. economy / politics ●●●●

1919 Kisima Farm anchors Timau large-scale farming 2 cit. Kisima Farm was founded in Timau in 1919 and incorporated in 1943. Today it presents itself as a Kenyan-owned mixed farm focused on arable crops, floriculture, seed potatoes, forestry and community projects. The farm makes Timau visible as a place where settler-era highland farm structure survived into modern agribusiness rather than disappearing at independence. economy / society ●●●●

4 June 1920 Treaty of Trianon 0 cit. Peace treaty with Hungary that transferred about two thirds of its prewar territory to neighboring states. It left large Hungarian minorities abroad and remains a national grievance. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

10 August 1920 Treaty of Sevres 0 cit. Peace treaty partitioning the Ottoman Empire among the Allies, Greece, and proposed Armenian and Kurdish entities. Rejected by Turkish nationalists, it was never implemented and was replaced at Lausanne. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

10 January 1920 Founding of the League of Nations 0 cit. The Covenant of the League of Nations enters into force with the Treaty of Versailles, creating the first world organization dedicated to collective security and peace, headquartered in Geneva. diplomacy / politics ●●●●●

c. 1920 to c. 1941 Shanghai as the financial center of East Asia 0 cit. In the 1920s and 1930s the banks lining Shanghai's Bund make the treaty port the leading financial center of East Asia, with deep markets in money, gold and foreign exchange. War with Japan and then revolution end this first golden age. economy ●●●

18 August 1920 Ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment 0 cit. Tennessee's ratification, carried by a single vote, guarantees women the right to vote nationwide. The amendment caps a seven-decade suffrage movement and roughly doubles the American electorate. politics / society ●●●●●

24 February 1920 Founding of the Nazi Party 1 cit. The German Workers' Party proclaims its 25-point program at the Hofbrauhaus and renames itself the National Socialist German Workers' Party. Hitler soon takes control of the small movement. politics ●●●

18 August 1920 Nineteenth Amendment ratified 0 cit. Tennessee's ratification makes the Nineteenth Amendment law, barring denial of the vote on account of sex. American women win the franchise after a seven-decade campaign. politics / society ●●●●

16 September 1920 Wall Street bombing 1 cit. A horse-drawn wagon packed with explosives detonated outside the offices of J.P. Morgan on Wall Street, killing 38 people. The attack was widely blamed on Italian anarchists but was never solved. economy / politics ●●

2 November 1920 KDKA begins commercial radio broadcasting 0 cit. KDKA in Pittsburgh broadcast the 1920 presidential election returns on 2 November 1920, an event often cited as the start of scheduled commercial radio in the United States. Radio quickly became a household mass medium. society / technology ●●●●

c. 1920 The Hollywood studio system takes shape 0 cit. Through the 1920s a handful of vertically integrated studios came to control film production, distribution, and theaters. The studio system concentrated creative and economic power over American mass entertainment. culture / economy ●●●

c. 1920 Soviet Agitprop established 0 cit. The Soviet Communist Party set up a Department of Agitation and Propaganda around 1920 to coordinate messaging through press, posters, and film. Agitprop made propaganda a permanent function of the state. politics / society ●●●

25 April 1920 The Mandates in the Middle East 0 cit. The League of Nations granted Britain control of Palestine, Transjordan, and Iraq as mandates. Britain governed the new territories carved from the fallen Ottoman Empire. politics ●●●●

10 January 1920 League of Nations established 0 cit. The League of Nations came into being when the Treaty of Versailles took effect, creating the first permanent intergovernmental organization for collective security. It was headquartered in Geneva and was weakened by the absence of the United States. politics / war ●●●●●

July 1920 Chatham House founded 0 cit. The Royal Institute of International Affairs, known as Chatham House, was founded to study international questions. It became one of the leading British think tanks on foreign affairs and gave its name to the Chatham House Rule. politics / society ●●●

18 August 1920 Nineteenth Amendment gives U.S. women the vote 0 cit. The Nineteenth Amendment barred states from denying the vote based on sex, enfranchising millions of women after a 70-year campaign. Many Black women, however, remained blocked from voting by racist state laws. politics / society ●●●

c. 1920 to c. 1929 "Fitter Families" contests promote eugenics at fairs 0 cit. At state fairs, eugenicists ran "Fitter Families" contests that judged people on health and heredity like prize livestock. The events spread the false idea that human worth could be measured and bred. science / society ●

16 September 1920 Wall Street bombing outside the Morgan bank 0 cit. On 16 September 1920 a bomb hidden in a wagon exploded outside the J.P. Morgan headquarters at 23 Wall Street, killing about 38 people. The attack was never solved but was widely blamed on anarchists. politics / society ●●●

c. 1920 Job's Daughters and Rainbow Girls 0 cit. Masonic-sponsored youth groups for girls emerged in the early 20th century, with the International Order of the Rainbow for Girls founded in 1922 and Job's Daughters in 1920. They parallel DeMolay in offering youth activities tied to Masonic families. culture / society ●●

c. 1920 The British Empire reaches its greatest extent 0 cit. After World War I redistributed former German and Ottoman territories, the British Empire covered about a quarter of the world's land and people. This peak of reach came just as the financial cost of the war began to erode Britain's global position. economy / politics ●●

c. 1920 The Soviet Union builds ideological education 0 cit. The Soviet state built schooling around Marxist-Leninist ideology, youth groups, and loyalty to the party alongside broad literacy and technical training. Education served both to modernize the country and to shape a Communist citizen. politics / society ●●●