Events, Verisoph

1922 Quigley: the Milner Group controlled The Times (from 1922) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that the Milner Group controlled The Times, indirectly from 1912 and directly from 1922. He treats the paper as one branch of the Group's network of influence. ●●

1922 Zimmern's Europe in Convalescence (1922) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Alfred Zimmern published Europe in Convalescence in 1922, regretting Britain's postwar policies and especially the 1918 election. Quigley uses it to show the Group's turn toward reconstructing Germany. ●●

1922 Irish Free State created (1922) ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Through the Articles of Agreement of December 1921 and the Irish Free State Act of March 1922, southern Ireland became an independent Dominion. Feetham of the Milner Group chaired the Boundary Commission. ●●

1922 Oregon outlaws private elementary schools, 1922 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto reports that in 1922 Oregon outlawed private schools for elementary children, a law later reversed by the Supreme Court in Pierce v. Society of Sisters (1925). ●●

1922 Walter Lippmann publishes Public Opinion ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Gatto cites Walter Lippmann's 1922 book Public Opinion, which he says called for restricting public debate and letting experts govern. He argues Lippmann wanted schools to teach that active citizenship was impossible. ●●

1922 Assassination of Walther Rathenau ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 24 June 1922 Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau, architect of the fulfillment policy, was murdered by right-wing reactionaries. His killing deepened the panic that sent the mark into free fall. ●●

1922 The Balfour Note links war debts to reparations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In mid-1922 Britain declared through the Balfour Note that it would collect from its debtors and from Germany only as much as the United States demanded of Britain. The note infuriated Americans, who were cast as 'Uncle Shylock.' ●●

1922 Fall of Lloyd George and the Bonar Law government ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Lloyd George's coalition collapsed in October 1922 and a Conservative government under Andrew Bonar Law took power in Britain. Stanley Baldwin became chancellor of the exchequer. ●●

1922 British delegation sails to settle war debts with America ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Baldwin led a British delegation, with Bank of England governor Montagu Norman as principal adviser, to negotiate a settlement of Britain's war debts to the United States. They sailed on December 30 aboard the Majestic. ●●

1922 Genoa Economic Conference and Norman's idea of a central bankers' league ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the 1922 Genoa Economic Conference, Norman floated the idea of a grand conclave of central bankers to stabilize European finances. Strong resisted, fearing the United States would be ambushed by its European debtors. ●●

1922 Strong invents the modern central banker ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By abandoning the automatic rules of the gold standard and steering credit to stabilize domestic prices and business activity, Strong pioneered modern central banking. In 1922 this was a radical departure from centuries of practice. ●●

1922 The Reichsbank Autonomy Law of 1922 ai_extracted 1 cit. The Reichsbank Autonomy Law of July 1922, enacted at British insistence to curb inflation by making the Reichsbank independent, instead gave inflation architect Rudolf von Havenstein tenure for life. ●●

1922 Harding names Hoover to War Debt Commission ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In February 1922, Harding appointed Hoover to the new World War Foreign Debt Commission, designed to settle the Allies’ debts based on “their capacity to pay.” The total debt... ●●

1922 Lamont negotiates Mexican debt agreement ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1922, Tom Lamont negotiated an agreement with Mexican finance minister de la Huerta that secured U.S. recognition for President Obregón in exchange for steep concessions including lower interest rates and a forty-five year payment schedule. ●●

1922 US banks reach their peak number ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The United States reached its maximum number of national and state-chartered banks during the era of free banking. ●●

1922 Laura Spelman Memorial funds social sciences research ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1922, under director Beardsley Ruml, the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial began distributing nearly fifty million dollars into social sciences research. This funding catalyzed university research centers. ●●

1922 Jimmy de Rothschild inherits Waddesdon Manor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Jimmy de Rothschild unexpectedly inherited the historic Waddesdon Manor in 1922 after the death of his cousin Ferdinand's unmarried sister Alice. ●●

1922 Agro-Joint agreement with Soviets for Jewish colonies ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1922, he worked out an agreement with the Soviets to create loan co-ops and training schools for Jews and began to advocate an enormous colonization project. ●●

1922 Hoover pushes for US trade with Soviet Russia ai_extracted 2 cit. no story In January 1922, Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover intercedes with the State Department on behalf of American business interests seeking to trade with Soviet Russia. ●●

1922 Bohr explains atomic basis of the periodic table ai_extracted 1 cit. no story the year his Nobel Prize made him a Danish national hero, Bohr accomplished a second great theoretical triumph: an explanation of the atomic structure that underlies the regularities of the periodic table of the elements. ●●

1922 Assassination of Walther Rathenau ai_extracted 1 cit. no story right-wing extremists gunned down Walther Rathenau, the Weimar Republic’s first Foreign Minister, a physical chemist and industrialist friend of Einstein and a highly visible Jew. ●●

1922 Hallervorden and Spatz identify rare brain disease ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ause why anyone would ever nominate him in the first place.” Museum officials added they would immediately look into removing his name.26 Another case involved Nazi doctors Hallervorden and Spatz. In 1922, the two had successfully identified a rare and devastating brain disease caused by a genetic m ●●

6 February 1922 Washington Naval Treaty signed 0 cit. The major naval powers, the United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy, agreed to fixed tonnage ratios for capital ships and a ten-year halt on new battleship construction, the first major international arms-control treaty of the industrial era. The treaty scrapped or cancelled dozens of ships already under construction. It shaped naval design and diplomacy through the interwar period until Japan withdrew in the mid-1930s. diplomacy / war ●●●

28 February 1922 Egypt granted nominal independence 0 cit. Britain unilaterally declared Egypt independent while retaining control over the Suez Canal, Sudan, and Egypt's defense and foreign affairs. The declaration ended the formal protectorate but left substantial British military and political power in place. Full British withdrawal did not come until the 1950s. politics ●●

May 1922 Bondelswarts Rebellion and aerial bombing 0 cit. South African administrator Jan Christiaan Smuts' government imposed a heavy dog tax on the Bondelswarts Nama community, provoking an armed protest that South African authorities crushed using aircraft to bomb and strafe Nama encampments. More than 100 Nama people were killed in the operation. The League of Nations criticized the disproportionate use of force but took no further action. war ●●

c. 1922 Haven of Peace Lodge founded in Dar es Salaam 0 cit. Haven of Peace Lodge No. 4385 was established in Dar es Salaam, becoming the first lodge under the United Grand Lodge of England in Tanganyika (mainland Tanzania), which had passed from German to British administration after the First World War. Its founding rounded out a network of English-constitution lodges across Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika, and Zanzibar. These territorial lodges would later be brought together administratively as the District Grand Lodge of East Africa. society ●

c. 1 January 1922 Harry Laughlin's Model Eugenical Sterilization Law 3 cit. Eugenicist Harry Laughlin, of the Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbor, published a "Model Eugenical Sterilization Law" intended as a template for state legislatures. Virginia's 1924 sterilization act was drafted using Laughlin's model, and it was later cited by German officials drafting the Nazi sterilization law of 1933. Laughlin was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Heidelberg in 1936 in recognition of his eugenics work. politics / science ●●●

7 April 1922 Special Powers Act 0 cit. The Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act (Northern Ireland) 1922 gave the Unionist government sweeping powers, including internment without trial, curfews, and bans on meetings and publications. It was renewed repeatedly and made permanent in 1933. Critics, including later official inquiries, documented that it was used disproportionately against the Catholic and nationalist community. politics / society ●●

16 March 1922 Arrest of Harry Thuku and the 1922 massacre 0 cit. After police arrested the protest leader Harry Thuku on 14 March 1922, a large crowd gathered outside the Central Police Station in Nairobi to demand his release, and on 16 March police, joined by armed settlers, opened fire. The official death toll was about 21 to 25, but other contemporary and later estimates run to 56 and beyond, and the true figure is disputed. It was the first mass killing of African protesters by police in the colony. politics / society ●●●

1 June 1922 The Royal Ulster Constabulary established 0 cit. The Royal Ulster Constabulary was formed in 1922 as the police force of the new Northern Ireland, inheriting the armed and centralized character of the old RIC. Throughout the Troubles it operated as a heavily armed force facing an insurgency, and critics argued it drew overwhelmingly from one community. It was replaced by the Police Service of Northern Ireland in 2001 following the Patten Commission's reforms. politics / society ●●

16 March 1922 Harry Thuku Arrested and the Nairobi Shooting 7 cit. Harry Thuku, founder of the East African Association, campaigned against the kipande, forced labor, and rising taxes before colonial authorities arrested him on 14 March 1922. A large crowd gathered outside the Nairobi police station demanding his release, and police and armed settlers opened fire on 16 March. The official death toll was around 21, but African and later accounts put it far higher, at over 50; the exact figure is disputed. Thuku was detained without trial for years, and the episode marked an early turn toward mass protest. politics / society ●●●

c. 1922 to c. 1996 The Magdalene laundries in Ireland 0 cit. Catholic religious orders in Ireland ran laundries where women and girls, many sent for being unmarried mothers or simply seen as troublesome, were confined and made to work without pay. The last one closed in 1996, and a 2013 state inquiry led the Irish government to issue a formal apology for the abuse and the state's role in it. politics / religion / society ●●●

1 November 1922 Abolition of the sultanate 0 cit. After the nationalists win the Turkish War of Independence, the Grand National Assembly abolishes the sultanate. The last sultan, Mehmed VI, leaves the country. More than six centuries of Ottoman monarchy come to an end, and power shifts decisively to the new government in Ankara. politics ●●●

March 1922 Harry Thuku and the 1922 protest 0 cit. Harry Thuku organized the East African Association against the kipande, forced labor, and rising taxes, becoming one of the first mass African political leaders in the colony. His arrest brought a crowd to the Nairobi police lines, where police and armed settlers opened fire, killing at least 21 people by the official count and far more by other accounts, including the woman activist Mary Muthoni Nyanjiru. The killing was an early, formative moment of nationalist grievance. politics / society ●●

June 1922 The Irish Civil War 0 cit. Supporters and opponents of the treaty fought a bitter civil war from 1922 to 1923. The pro-treaty Free State forces, backed by Michael Collins until his death, defeated the anti-treaty republicans led politically by Éamon de Valera. The war was short but left deep divisions that shaped Irish party politics for decades. politics / war ●●

December 1922 The Free State and de Valera's Constitution 0 cit. The Irish Free State formally came into being in December 1922. Under Éamon de Valera, a new constitution in 1937 renamed the state Ireland, or Éire, dropped most ties to the crown and asserted a claim over the whole island. The state stayed neutral in the Second World War, a period known there as the Emergency. politics ●●

c. 1922 Work and Marriage in Nairobi 6 cit. In the early 1920s Kamau moved to Nairobi and took a series of jobs, best remembered as a meter reader and storekeeper for the municipal water department. He had married Grace Wahu in 1919, and their son Peter Muigai was born in 1920. Living in the colonial capital drew him into the political ferment building among educated and mission-schooled Africans. economy / society ●

c. 1922 Taking the Name Kenyatta 0 cit. During the 1920s Johnstone Kamau adopted the name Kenyatta, drawn from the beaded Maasai-style belt he wore, known in Kikuyu as a kinyata. He signed himself Johnstone Kenyatta as KCA secretary and later took the first name Jomo, so that by the late 1930s he was writing as Jomo Kenyatta. The chosen name, echoing the country itself, would become inseparable from the nation he led. culture / society ●

1922 Malinowski publishes Argonauts of the Western Pacific 0 cit. Bronislaw Malinowski, based at the LSE, published Argonauts of the Western Pacific, drawn from his long fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands. The book argued for close firsthand study of a living society and helped establish modern social anthropology. It set the method that the School would teach for a generation. science / society ●●

1922 The movement adopts the name Rotary International 0 cit. As clubs spread across continents, the association renamed itself Rotary International to reflect its global reach. The body set common standards for clubs while leaving day-to-day service to local members. By this point Rotary had become a worldwide network of business and professional people. economy / society ●●

1922 Bernays builds on Lippmann's Public Opinion ai_extracted 1 cit. Bernays drew his theory of an expert elite managing the public mind from Walter Lippmann, whose book Public Opinion appeared in 1922. Lippmann had concluded that ordinary people could not reliably think through public affairs and needed detached professionals to frame the issues. ●●

c. 1922 American service clubs spread across the world 0 cit. Through the 1910s and 1920s the leading clubs added chapters outside the United States, starting with Canada and Britain and then Europe, Latin America, and Asia. Rotary took the name Rotary International as its clubs multiplied abroad, and Lions and Kiwanis followed similar paths. The service club became a recognizable global institution of the business and professional middle class. economy / society ●

1922 Lugard codifies indirect rule in The Dual Mandate contested 0 cit. Frederick Lugard's book sets out indirect rule, governing colonies cheaply through selected local chiefs backed by colonial power. The system ran administration on a skeleton staff and hardened divided, dependent local authorities. Critics argue it entrenched weak and fragmented governance that outlasted colonial rule. politics ●●

6 February 1922 The Washington Naval Treaty grants the United States parity 0 cit. The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 set limits on capital ships among the major naval powers. It fixed a ratio that gave the United States and Britain equal tonnage, with Japan below them. For the first time Britain formally accepted a rival as its equal at sea, ending the long era of unmatched Royal Navy supremacy. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●●

1922 The Wood-Winterton proposals offer Indians a common roll 0 cit. A British compromise, the Wood-Winterton agreement, proposed to give Kenya's Indians a common electoral roll with Europeans and to ease immigration and highland restrictions. It went further toward Indian equality than any plan before. Kenya's white settlers were enraged, and the plan set off the crisis the Devonshire White Paper would settle. politics / society ●●●

16 March 1922 Mary Muthoni Nyanjiru shames the men and is shot 6 cit. After the arrest of the activist Harry Thuku in March 1922, a crowd gathered outside the Nairobi police lines. When the men hesitated, Mary Muthoni Nyanjiru rushed forward, lifted her dress, and called on them to take her dress and give her their trousers, the sharpest shaming a woman could throw at men. The crowd surged, the police opened fire, and she was among the first killed, with about twenty others. Her defiance became a song sung again during Mau Mau. politics / society ●●●

16 March 1922 Harry Thuku and the East African Association 0 cit. Harry Thuku founded the Young Kikuyu Association in 1921 and then the wider East African Association, organizing early protest against forced labor, the kipande pass, and heavy taxes. His arrest in March 1922 drew a large crowd to the Nairobi police station demanding his release, and police and settlers opened fire, killing many. Thuku was then deported and held for years without trial. His movement marked the start of organized mass politics in the colony. politics / society ●●●

23 March 1923 Halibut Treaty wikidata 0 cit. no story 1923 Canadian, American agreement concerning fishing rights in the northern Pacific Ocean ●●●

1923 Schacht appointed Reichsbank president ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1923 the Allied Reparation Commission, dominated by Wall Street banks, handpicked and appointed Hjalmar Schacht as Reichsbank president against the wishes of the Reichsbank executives. ●●●

24 July 1923 Treaty of Lausanne 0 cit. Peace treaty recognizing the Republic of Turkey within essentially its modern borders, replacing the failed Treaty of Sevres. It also sanctioned a compulsory population exchange between Greece and Turkey. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

7 September 1923 Founding of Interpol 0 cit. no story Police officials from 20 countries found the International Criminal Police Commission in Vienna to coordinate cross-border crime fighting. Rebuilt after the Second World War, it became Interpol, based in Lyon. diplomacy / politics / society ●●●

29 October 1923 Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey 0 cit. no story Mustafa Kemal Ataturk proclaims the Republic of Turkey after the War of Independence, succeeding the Ottoman Empire. politics / war ●●●●

16 October 1923 Founding of Walt Disney Company 0 cit. Walt and Roy Disney found the Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio in Los Angeles. Mickey Mouse, the first feature-length animated film, and theme parks make Disney the world's dominant entertainment company. culture / economy ●●●●

4 April 1923 Founding of Warner Bros 0 cit. The four Warner brothers incorporate their film studio in Hollywood. Its 1927 release The Jazz Singer, the first feature with synchronized speech, ends the silent film era. culture / economy ●●

8 November 1923 Beer Hall Putsch 1 cit. Hitler and the Nazi Party attempt to seize power in Bavaria in imitation of the March on Rome, but police break up the coup. Hitler's trial and short imprisonment make him a national figure and convince him to pursue power through elections. politics ●●●

1923 The German hyperinflation of 1923 0 cit. Germany printed vast amounts of money to cover debts and reparations, and prices spiraled so fast that banknotes became nearly worthless within hours. The episode became the classic example of hyperinflation destroying a currency. economy / politics ●●●●

1923 Fascist Italy passes the Gentile education reform 0 cit. The 1923 Gentile reform reorganized Italian schools under Mussolini's government and later bent the curriculum toward Fascist loyalty. It shows how a state can reshape schooling to build its favored citizens. politics / society ●●

22 December 1923 Hjalmar Schacht appointed head of the Reichsbank 0 cit. Hjalmar Schacht became President of the Reichsbank weeks after helping stop Germany's hyperinflation. He quickly formed a close working friendship with Montagu Norman and Benjamin Strong. economy / politics ●●●

15 November 1923 Germany stops hyperinflation with the Rentenmark 0 cit. Germany introduced the Rentenmark to end the hyperinflation that had destroyed the paper mark and wiped out middle-class savings. Hjalmar Schacht managed the stabilization, which restored a working currency but left deep social scars. economy / society ●●●●

1923 Alice Bailey opens the Arcane School 0 cit. Alice Bailey, who said she received teachings from a Tibetan master, founded the Arcane School to train students in esoteric meditation and service. Bailey popularized the phrase New Age and her writings shaped much of the movement's later spiritual vocabulary. culture / religion ●●●

c. 1923 Oberth's The Rocket into Interplanetary Space 0 cit. Hermann Oberth published a book arguing that rockets could carry people into space. It inspired a generation of German rocket enthusiasts, including Wernher von Braun. science / technology ●●●

1923 The Frankfurt School is founded 0 cit. The Institute for Social Research opens in Frankfurt, home to the thinkers, most of them Jewish, who develop critical theory: Horkheimer, Adorno, Marcuse, Fromm, and others. They apply Marxist and Freudian ideas to culture, mass media, and authority. A genuine and much-studied school of thought. culture / politics ●●●●

1923 Kenya White Paper, 1923 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The controversy over Kenya's Legislative Council produced the compromise of the 1923 Kenya White Paper and the appointment of Sir Edward Grigg as governor for 1925-1931. ●●

1923 German hyperinflation ruins the middle classes (1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley notes the final stages of inflation that destroyed the German middle classes came after the war, in 1923, directing their hatred against the postwar parliamentary government. ●●

1923 Treaty of Lausanne formally ends WWI (July 24, 1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the Treaty of Sevres collapsed, a moderate negotiated treaty signed by the Kemalist government at Lausanne on July 24, 1923, formally ended the First World War and ended four centuries of Turkish decline. ●●

1923 Franco-Belgian occupation of the Ruhr (January 1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 9, 1923, the Reparations Commission declared Germany in default, and French, Belgian, and Italian forces began occupying the Ruhr two days later, met by German passive resistance. ●●

1923 German mark collapses in hyperinflation (1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The German mark fell from 80,000 to the pound in January 1923 to 20 million in August and 20 billion by December 1923, an inflation Quigley attributes to Germany's method of avoiding reparations. ●●

1923 Beer-Hall Putsch ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the Beer-Hall Putsch of November 8, 1923, Hitler and Ludendorff tried to force Kahr and Lossow to continue a revolt. They were overcome by gunfire; Hitler was jailed and wrote Mein Kampf. ●●

1923 Primo de Rivera's military coup in Spain ai_extracted 1 cit. no story To block a parliamentary investigation into corruption and defeats in Morocco, a military coup under General Primo de Rivera, with King Alfonso XIII's acquiescence, took over the government in 1923, dissolving the Cortes and ending civil liberties. ●●

1923 Quigley links the post-1923 Conservative split to Milner-Cecil lines ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley suggests the split inside the Conservative Party after 1923 followed the division between the Milner Group and the older Cecil Bloc. He offers it as an interpretive claim. ●●

1923 Milner's Questions of the Hour (1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Milner set out unorthodox economic ideas in his 1923 book Questions of the Hour. Quigley says these ideas, favoring managed national economy over the gold standard, were far ahead of the Group's thinking. ●●

1923 Milner's Lords speech on Zionism (27 June 1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 27 June 1923 Milner set out the Group's view of Zionism in the House of Lords, backing a Jewish national home but insisting Palestine must never become a Jewish state. He favored an Arab Federation. ●●

1923 Chatham House acquired and named (1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1923 Curtis persuaded Colonel R. W. Leonard to buy Lord Kinnaird's house at 10 St. James Square for the Institute. Once William Pitt's home, it was named Chatham House, now a byword for the RIIA. ●●

1923 Quigley: Milner Group helps make Baldwin Prime Minister ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts the Milner Group worked behind the scenes to persuade the King to choose Baldwin over Curzon as Prime Minister in 1923, citing Harold Nicolson's account of Balfour, Amery, and Walter Long intervening. ●●

1923 Quigley: Curtis defends the balance of power at the RUA ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that Lionel Curtis, who in 1918 had condemned the balance of power, reversed himself by January 1923 and defended it against Professor Pollard, marking the Group's return to old power-politics thinking. ●●

1923 Smuts's South African Luncheon Club speech ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley calls this October 1923 speech in London the best single statement of the Milner Group's early revisionist and pro-German outlook, in which Smuts warned against French militarism. ●●

1923 France occupies the Ruhr ai_extracted 1 cit. no story French forces occupied the Ruhr to force reparations payments, enraging the Milner Group, which Quigley says threatened economic and diplomatic retaliation against France in The Round Table. ●●

1923 Quigley: Smuts opens contact with Stresemann ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that right after his October 1923 anti-French speech, Smuts got in touch with German foreign minister Stresemann, advising him to abandon non-cooperation, a line that Quigley says led toward the Dawes Plan and Locarno. ●●

1923 German Chancellor cites Smuts as his guide ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At a cabinet meeting Stresemann named Smuts as the author of what he considered the proper road out of the reparations crisis, evidence Quigley uses for the Group's reach into German policy. ●●

1923 Carl Brigham asserts Nordic superiority, 1923 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto quotes psychologist Carl Brigham, who in his 1923 book A Study of American Intelligence claimed to have demonstrated the intellectual superiority of the Nordic group. ●●

1923 E.G. Boring's circular definition of intelligence, 1923 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites E.G. Boring's 1923 definition that intelligence is what an intelligence test measures, as the classic behaviorist statement on intelligence. ●●

1923 Milner's desire to abandon the gold standard ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book says Lord Milner, described as the Network's primary leader, had written of wanting to abandon the gold standard as early as 1923. It uses this to argue the shift off gold served the Network rather than harming it. ●●

1923 French and Belgian troops occupy the Ruhr ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In early 1923, after Germany fell behind on reparations, forty thousand French and Belgian troops invaded and occupied the industrial Ruhr valley. The precipitating incident was a failure to deliver telephone poles. ●●

1923 The German hyperinflation reaches its peak ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1923 Germany suffered the greatest destruction of monetary value in history. A dollar worth 620,000 marks in August was worth 630 billion by early November. ●●

1923 German unemployment explodes as the currency dies ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1923 the collapse of the mark made commerce impossible and the economy reverted to barter. Unemployment, around 3 percent, suddenly jumped to 20 percent in the autumn of 1923. ●●

1923 Keynes publishes A Tract on Monetary Reform ai_extracted 2 cit. In December 1923, Keynes published A Tract on Monetary Reform, his first systematic attempt to explain the postwar monetary instability. Much of it had already appeared in the Manchester Guardian during 1922 and early 1923. ●●

1923 Fight over control of Fed open market operations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1923 the Federal Reserve Board tried to take charge of open market operations, the new tool of buying and selling government securities. Strong, recuperating in Colorado, was furious but eventually accepted Board oversight while still dominating decisions. ●●

1923 Schacht and Stresemann dine as Germany nears bankruptcy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On the night of November 8, 1923, banker Hjalmar Schacht met Chancellor Gustav Stresemann at Berlin's Hotel Continental. Stresemann sought to persuade Schacht to become currency commissioner and reform the collapsing German currency. ●●

1923 Hyperinflation bread riots in Berlin ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On November 5, 1923, the price of a two-kilo loaf of bread in Germany soared from 20 billion to 140 billion marks, sparking nationwide riots. Over a thousand shops were looted and Jewish Berliners were attacked by mobs. ●●

1923 Hitler's Beer Hall Putsch collapses ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Adolf Hitler, working with General Erich Ludendorff, seized a Munich beer hall and proclaimed the Berlin government deposed. The attempted coup, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, collapsed within twenty-four hours. ●●

1923 Introduction of the Rentenmark ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On November 15, 1923, Germany introduced the new Rentenmark, notionally backed by land, alongside the collapsed Reichsmark. The country briefly had two official currencies issued by two parallel central banks. ●●

1923 Schacht fixes the Rentenmark conversion rate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After waiting for the Reichsmark to sink further, Schacht fixed the conversion rate on November 20, 1923, at 1 trillion Reichsmarks to one Rentenmark. The delay let the government buy back its debt for a fraction of its value. ●●

1923 Death of Rudolf von Havenstein ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On November 20, 1923, the day Schacht fixed the new currency's conversion rate, Reichsbank president Rudolf von Havenstein collapsed and died of a heart attack after a late board meeting. He was sixty-six. ●●

1923 Schacht appointed president of the Reichsbank ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On December 20, 1923, over strong opposition from within the bank, Schacht was appointed president of the Reichsbank. His only rival was the discredited wartime treasury secretary Karl Helfferich. ●●

1923 Schacht meets Norman in London ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Schacht arrived in London on New Year's Eve 1923 to enlist Norman's help for Germany. Norman met him personally at Liverpool Street Station, beginning a close partnership between the two central bankers. ●●

1923 Reparations Commission appoints committees of experts ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On November 30, 1923, the Reparations Commission announced two international committees of experts. The first was to balance the German budget and stabilize the currency, the second to investigate German capital flight. ●●

1923 Dawes committee formed on German reparations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story So in late 1923, at the suggestion of Secretary of State Hughes, he appointed a committee of experts headed by Harding’s old budget director, Charles Dawes, to propose a plan to... ●●

1923 Great Kanto earthquake strikes Japan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 1 September 1923, a huge earthquake (7. ●●

1923 Stettinius shares GE insider information ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1923, Morgan partner Herman Harjes in Paris inquired about buying General Electric shares, and Stettinius hesitantly shared insider information he had gained from his position on GE's board of directors. ●●

1923 Morgan partners aid Japan earthquake relief ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Following a major earthquake in Japan, Morgan partners including Dwight Morrow became involved in relief efforts. Rumors circulated that Japan planned its first bond issue in America since the Russo-Japanese War. ●●