Events, Verisoph

1932 Papen removes the Prussian government ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On July 20, 1932, Hindenburg by decree under Article 48 appointed Papen commissioner for Prussia, letting him dismiss the elected Prussian cabinet. This removed the chief institutional obstacle to Nazi extremism. ●●

1932 Election of Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The shift of farmers, light industry, commercial interests, real estate, professionals and unskilled labor to the Democratic Party in 1932 produced the election of Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal. ●●

1932 US non-recognition of Manchurian conquest (Stimson Doctrine) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As early as January 1932 the United States notified signers of the 1922 Nine-Power treaty that it would refuse to accept territorial changes made by force in violation of the Kellogg-Briand Pact. ●●

1932 Baldwin's 'the bomber will always get through' speech ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In November 1932 Stanley Baldwin told the public there was no power on earth that could protect a man from being bombed. Quigley says acceptance of such ideas by civilian leaders was a chief factor in appeasement and the Munich surrender. ●●

1932 Aldous Huxley publishes Brave New World ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Wood argues that Huxley's 1932 novel foresaw the technocratic transformation of society. He asserts it predicted an end state of scientific dictatorship. ●●

1932 Committee on Technocracy formed at Columbia ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the early fall of 1932 Walter Rautenstrauch and Howard Scott formed the Committee on Technocracy at Columbia University to run an industrial survey of North America. ●●

1932 John Dewey heralds the end of 'the old individualism' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that in 1932 John Dewey, then America's most prominent educational voice, declared the end of the old individualism, arguing that associations increasingly define individual choices and actions. ●●

1932 Frances Zimmer marries into the Gatto family in 1932 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1932 Gatto's mother, Frances Zimmer, married into the Italian Gatto family, wedding alone without her parents present. ●●

1932 Reconstruction Finance Corporation established ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In January 1932 the Reconstruction Finance Corporation was created to channel $1.5 billion of public money into the banking system. Congress insisted Eugene Meyer chair it alongside his Fed post. ●●

1932 The Dow hits bottom ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On July 8, 1932, the Dow fell to 41, down almost 90 percent from its 1929 peak of 381. It marked the depth of the Depression, with corporations losing billions and unemployment above ten million. ●●

1932 Roosevelt wins the presidency ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In November 1932 Franklin Roosevelt won a landslide over Hoover, 22.8 million votes to 15.7 million, the largest sweep since 1864. The campaign had been dominated by the Depression. ●●

1932 Allies cancel German reparations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In June 1932, France and Britain formally agreed to forgive all German reparations, accepting that no more money could be extracted. Of the $32 billion once demanded, the Allies had collected only about $4 billion. ●●

1932 Fed launches massive bond-buying program ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The massive bond-buying program that the Fed initiated in May 1932, in which it agreed to buy $26 million worth of bonds a week from its member banks, reached a total of $1.82... ●●

1932 Wright Patman moves to impeach Andrew Mellon ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 6, 1932, Texas Democratic representative Wright Patman told the Speaker of the House that he wanted to impeach Mellon on the charge of “high crimes and misdemeanors.”... ●●

1932 Federal Home Loan Bank Board established ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A Federal Home Loan Bank Board had already been set up in 1932 to encourage and oversee local mortgage lenders known as Savings and Loans (or thrifts), mutual associations like British building societies, which took in deposits and lent to home buyers. ●●

1932 Lausanne Conference ends reparations payments ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In July 1932, European leaders at Lausanne reached a gentleman's agreement that effectively ended reparations and war debt payments, marking what Lamont saw as an end to the economic warfare that had persisted since the Treaty of Versailles. ●●

1932 Japanese conquest of Manchuria ai_extracted 1 cit. no story neffectual that they did more harm than good. At the time of the Japanese conquest of Manchuria in 1932, the League had no machinery for sanctions. ●●

1932 Illustrated edition of Initiates of the Flame published ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A more lavishly illustrated edition of Manly Hall's Initiates of the Flame was published, featuring illustrations by his friend and collaborator J. Augustus Knapp, who would also illustrate The Secret Teachings of All Ages. ●●

1932 Chadwick announces discovery of the neutron ai_extracted 1 cit. no story in a letter to the British journal Nature, physicist James Chadwick of the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University, Ernest Rutherford’s laboratory, announced the possible existence of a neutron. ●●

1932 Joliot-Curies report protons from beryllium radiation ai_extracted 1 cit. no story the Joliot-Curies reported to the Academy of Sciences their discovery that paraffin wax emitted high-velocity protons when bombarded by beryllium radiation. ●●

1932 Reichswehr plans secret rearmament and Treaty breach ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the second half of 1932 the Reichswehr leadership began planning for an outright Treaty breach through a significant increase in peacetime military strength. ●●

12 May 1932 George Washington Masonic Memorial Dedicated 0 cit. The George Washington Masonic National Memorial was dedicated during the bicentennial year of George Washington's birth, with President Herbert Hoover taking part. The tower-topped memorial sits on Shooter's Hill overlooking Alexandria and now houses Masonic museum collections and Washington memorabilia. It stands as one of the largest purpose-built Masonic monuments in the world. Its scale reflects the prestige Freemasonry still held in American civic life in the early 20th century. culture / politics ●●

1 September 1932 Mayor Jimmy Walker resigns 0 cit. Facing removal hearings before Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt based on the Seabury investigation's findings, Jimmy Walker resigned as mayor of New York City. His resignation marked a major blow to Tammany's political standing heading into the 1933 mayoral election. politics ●●●

24 November 1932 FBI Laboratory is founded 0 cit. The FBI opened its Technical Laboratory, offering forensic analysis of physical evidence, including firearms, documents, and chemical traces, to police departments across the country free of charge. It grew into the largest and most influential crime laboratory in the United States. Decades later some of its units, particularly hair microscopy and bullet-lead analysis, would become central to the reckoning over unvalidated forensic methods. politics / science ●●●

c. 1 January 1932 Pecora Commission investigates the 1929 crash 0 cit. The US Senate Committee on Banking and Currency investigated the causes of the 1929 stock market crash and the practices of Wall Street banks, gaining public attention after Ferdinand Pecora became chief counsel in January 1933. The hearings exposed conflicts of interest, manipulative trading and reckless practices by major banks and their executives. The findings built public and political support for the Glass-Steagall Act of 1933 and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, which created the SEC. economy / politics ●●●

1 October 1932 Mosley founds the British Union of Fascists 1 cit. Oswald Mosley, a former Labour minister, founds the British Union of Fascists, modeled on Mussolini's movement. Its blackshirt marches and antisemitism provoke street clashes, and the party is banned during the Second World War. politics ●●

1932 Kreuger the Match King falsifies the books 0 cit. The Swedish financier Ivar Kreuger built a global match empire on a maze of hundreds of companies, hidden accounts, and forged securities that concealed enormous losses. When it unravelled he shot himself in Paris in 1932, and the wreckage of what one review called faked assets and fictitious profits helped spur tougher disclosure and audit rules in the United States. economy / politics ●●

1932 The Carter Land Commission Confirms the Divide 0 cit. The Kenya Land Commission under Sir Morris Carter sat from 1932 and reported in 1934 on African land claims, above all the Kikuyu demand for the lost highland ridges. It granted the Kikuyu a modest area of extra land and a cash payment but rejected the bulk of their claims and set fixed boundaries for the native reserves. Crucially it endorsed the White Highlands as a permanent European preserve, dashing hopes that the theft might be undone by law. politics / society ●●

c. 1932 Kenyatta's Journeys to Moscow 0 cit. In the early 1930s Kenyatta travelled to the Soviet Union and studied briefly in Moscow, attracted like many anti-colonial activists of the era to the Comintern's opposition to empire. He moved for a time in radical and communist circles in London alongside figures such as George Padmore. He later distanced himself from communism, and how deep his Marxist commitment ran remains debated among his biographers. politics ●

c. 1932 Writing for the Negro Worker and the ITUC-NW 0 cit. Kenyatta contributed to the Negro Worker, the paper of the Comintern-linked International Trade Union Committee of Negro Workers that Padmore ran. Some pieces appeared under aliases. It placed the Kikuyu land grievance inside a wider communist argument against empire. economy / politics ●●

c. 1932 Travels across Europe on Padmore's sponsorship 0 cit. With Padmore's backing Kenyatta travelled through France, the Netherlands, Germany, and on to the Soviet Union. He saw European capitals and their radical movements at first hand. The journeys widened his politics well past the single land question that had brought him over. diplomacy / politics ●

August 1932 to 1933 A year at the Comintern's KUTV in Moscow 0 cit. From August 1932 Kenyatta studied for about a year at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East (KUTV), the Comintern's training school for colonial revolutionaries. He enrolled under a cover name, recorded in Soviet files as James Joken. Historians such as Hakim Adi note that his instructors came to see him as hostile to Marxism and unsuitable as an agent. politics ●●

1932 Robbins defines the science of economics 0 cit. Lionel Robbins published An Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science, which defined economics as the study of how people use scarce means to meet competing ends. The book shaped how economics was taught and understood for decades. It was a product of the LSE's confident, theory-first approach in the 1930s. economy / science ●●

1932 Jomo Kenyatta studies at the Moscow school 0 cit. The Kenyan nationalist Jomo Kenyatta spent time in 1932 and 1933 studying at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East in Moscow. He later moved away from the communist movement and led Kenya to independence as a firmly non-communist figure. His stay shows both the reach of Soviet training and how many of those it schooled would later part ways with Moscow. politics / society ●●

1932 British royal Christmas broadcast instituted ai_extracted 1 cit. Hobsbawm cites the royal Christmas broadcast as a clear case of a tradition that was deliberately invented and formally instituted at a datable moment. It began in 1932 and quickly came to feel like a long-standing national custom. ●

c. 1932 Fritz Thyssen bankrolls Hitler and later writes 'I Paid Hitler' 1 cit. The steel magnate Fritz Thyssen was one of the earliest big-business backers of the Nazi Party, giving money and lending his name in the years before 1933. He broke with Hitler over the war and fled Germany. The memoir published under his name, I Paid Hitler, describes that funding; Thyssen later distanced himself from parts of the ghostwritten text, so its details are attributed to him rather than taken as gospel. economy / politics ●●●

1932 The Kakamega gold rush brings European prospectors into the reserve 0 cit. A gold rush drew hundreds of European prospectors and miners into the Kakamega area during 1932 and 1933. Mining camps, a township, and claims spread across land that belonged to Luhya families. The rush was small by world standards but large enough to override the promise that the reserve was protected. economy / society ●●●

1932 The government amends the ordinance to open the goldfields to Europeans 0 cit. When gold was found in the reserve, the colonial government amended the Native Lands Trust Ordinance in 1932 to excise the goldfields and admit European prospectors and miners. The amendment let mining go ahead on land that had been declared inviolable only two years earlier. It showed that the legal protection of native land held only until Europeans wanted what was under it. economy / politics ●●●●

30 January 1933 Adolf Hitler appointed Chancellor 0 cit. President Hindenburg appoints Hitler Chancellor of Germany; within eighteen months the republic is a dictatorship. politics ●●●●●

1933 to 1939 Schacht reappointed head of the Reichsbank under Hitler ai_extracted 1 cit. Hjalmar Schacht, who used his monetary powers to help hand Germany over to Adolf Hitler, was rewarded by being reappointed head of the Reichsbank from 1933 to 1939. ●●●

1933 to 1937 Reichsbank's monetized fiscal policy under Schacht ai_extracted 1 cit. From 1933 to 1937 the Reichsbank under Hjalmar Schacht combined stepped-up central bank credit creation with fiscal spending programs funded by bills of exchange purchased by banks and the central bank, known in the German tradition as silent funding. ●●●

1933 Founding of the International Rescue Committee 0 cit. At Albert Einstein's suggestion, an American branch of the International Relief Association forms in New York to aid refugees from Nazi Germany. It grew into the International Rescue Committee, a leading refugee relief agency. diplomacy / society ●●

29 May 1933 Founding of Saudi Aramco 0 cit. Saudi Arabia signs an oil concession with Standard Oil of California, which forms the California Arabian Standard Oil Company, later Aramco. Sitting on the world's largest oil reserves, it becomes the most valuable oil company on earth. economy / politics ●●●●

30 January 1933 Hitler appointed Chancellor 0 cit. President Hindenburg appoints Adolf Hitler Chancellor of Germany. Within months the Nazis destroy German democracy, setting the course toward the Second World War and the Holocaust. politics ●●●●●

9 March 1933 The New Deal and the Alphabet Agencies 0 cit. In the Hundred Days after Franklin Roosevelt's inauguration, Congress creates a wave of new agencies, including the CCC, TVA, FDIC, and NRA, to fight the Great Depression. The burst of institution building permanently enlarges the federal government's role in the economy. economy / politics / society ●●●●

16 June 1933 Founding of the FDIC 0 cit. The Banking Act of 1933 creates the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation to insure bank deposits after thousands of bank failures wiped out savers. Deposit insurance largely ends the classic bank run in America. economy ●●●

19 March 1933 Estado Novo constitution in Portugal 0 cit. A national plebiscite approves Salazar's corporatist constitution, founding the Estado Novo. The authoritarian regime, influenced by fascist corporatism, rules Portugal until 1974. politics ●●

4 March 1933 Launch of the New Deal 1 cit. Franklin Roosevelt takes office amid the Depression and drives through a wave of relief, recovery, and regulatory legislation in his first hundred days. The New Deal redefines the state's role in a capitalist economy. economy / politics ●●●●

13 March 1933 to 1945 Nazi Reich Ministry of Propaganda under Goebbels 2 cit. The Nazi government created the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda under Joseph Goebbels on 13 March 1933, giving the state control over press, radio, film, and the arts. It became a model of total propaganda by a modern dictatorship. politics / war ●●●●●

12 March 1933 FDR's fireside chats 0 cit. President Franklin Roosevelt gave the first of his radio fireside chats on 12 March 1933, speaking directly to citizens in a plain, intimate style. The broadcasts showed how a leader could use mass media to build public trust. politics / society ●●●

1933 Payne Fund Studies on film's effects 0 cit. The Payne Fund Studies, published in 1933, were the first large research effort into how movies affected children and social behavior. They fed public pressure for stricter control of film content. culture / science ●●

c. 1933 to c. 1945 Nazi persecution of Freemasons 1 cit. After 1933 the Nazi regime banned German lodges, seized their property, and treated Freemasons as enemies of the state. Thousands of Freemasons across occupied Europe were imprisoned or killed in the camps. politics / religion / war ●●●●

16 June 1933 Glass-Steagall Act separates commercial and investment banking 1 cit. The Banking Act of 1933, known as Glass-Steagall, split commercial banking from investment banking and created federal deposit insurance. It reshaped American finance for the rest of the century. economy / politics ●●●●

5 April 1933 Roosevelt takes the dollar off the domestic gold standard 1 cit. Executive Order 6102 required Americans to turn in most gold coin and bullion to the Federal Reserve. The step ended domestic gold convertibility and let the government manage the dollar's value. economy / politics ●●●

29 May 1933 Saudi Arabia Grants Oil Concession to SOCAL 0 cit. Saudi Arabia awarded an oil exploration concession to the Standard Oil Company of California. The concession created the entity that would become Aramco. economy ●●●●

1933 to 1939 The Fifth Aliyah 0 cit. Rising Nazi persecution drove a large wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine in the 1930s. It sharply increased the Jewish population and Arab opposition to it. politics / society ●●

14 July 1933 Nazi Germany enacts compulsory sterilization law 2 cit. The Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring authorized the forced sterilization of people with disabilities and illnesses, drawing openly on American models. About 400,000 people were sterilized against their will. politics / science ●●●

1933 to 1945 Nazi racial hygiene shapes state policy debunked 2 cit. The Nazi regime built its rule around "racial hygiene," claiming a superior Aryan race and marking Jews, Roma, disabled people, and others for persecution. This pseudoscience of human ranking helped drive the genocide of the Holocaust. politics / science ●●●

c. 1933 Rockefeller Center opens in Manhattan 0 cit. The Rockefeller Center complex, financed by John D. Rockefeller Jr, began opening its buildings in 1933 during the Great Depression. The full development was completed later in the decade. culture / economy ●●●

1933 Gustav Krupp backs Hitler and German rearmament 1 cit. After Adolf Hitler took power in 1933 Gustav Krupp supported the regime and the firm profited from large-scale rearmament. Krupp became a pillar of the Nazi war economy. economy / politics / war ●●●●

20 July 1933 Reichskonkordat with Nazi Germany 0 cit. The Holy See signed a concordat with Adolf Hitler's government, protecting Church rights in Germany in exchange for Catholic withdrawal from politics. The agreement remains debated for lending the new Nazi regime early legitimacy. politics / religion ●●●

1933 to 1945 Nazi Germany turns schools into indoctrination 1 cit. After 1933 the Nazis rewrote curricula to teach racial ideology and loyalty to Hitler and made the Hitler Youth central to raising children. Education became a direct tool of the regime's propaganda. politics / war ●●●

19 April 1933 Roosevelt takes the United States off gold 1 cit. President Franklin Roosevelt suspended gold convertibility and later devalued the dollar to fight deflation. Freeing monetary policy from gold helped the American economy begin to recover. economy / politics ●●●●

30 January 1933 Hitler appointed Chancellor of Germany 0 cit. Adolf Hitler became Chancellor after the Depression shattered the Weimar Republic's centre parties and left millions jobless. The documented path ran from economic collapse to political extremism, the outcome of failed policy rather than any banker conspiracy. economy / politics ●●●●●

17 March 1933 Schacht returns to lead the Reichsbank under Hitler 0 cit. Hjalmar Schacht was reappointed President of the Reichsbank soon after Hitler took power. He put his financial skill to work funding the new regime's economic and military plans. economy / politics ●●●

1933 Nazi regime and total dictatorship 0 cit. Hitler turned a democracy into a totalitarian state that controlled the courts, press, and daily life and crushed all opposition. It became the most extreme case of the modern total state. politics / war ●●●●●

14 July 1933 to 1945 Nazi Germany's forced sterilization law 0 cit. The Nazi Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring, enacted in 1933, led to the forced sterilization of roughly 400,000 people deemed genetically unfit. The program drew directly on American eugenic laws and preceded the regime's mass murder of disabled people. politics / war ●●●●●

1933 to 1977 North Carolina Eugenics Board sterilizations 0 cit. North Carolina's Eugenics Board ordered the sterilization of about 7,600 people between 1929 and 1974, increasingly targeting poor Black women in the postwar years. The state began paying compensation to survivors in 2013. politics / society ●●●●

10 May 1933 The Nazi book burnings 0 cit. German students burn tens of thousands of books by Jewish, leftist, and 'un-German' authors, part of a campaign against so-called cultural Bolshevism. The archetypal image of a regime destroying speech it fears. culture / politics ●●●●

1933 Hitler comes to power in Germany (1933) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley marks 1933 as the point when Hitler came to power in Germany, after which both the French Right and Left shifted their foreign policies. ●●

1933 Hitler quits the Disarmament Conference (1933) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When Hitler came to office in January 1933 he demanded immediate arms equality with France; when refused, Germany left the conference and withdrew from the League in October 1933. ●●

1933 Gold maldistribution forces most nations off the gold standard (by 1933) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley notes that a complete maldistribution of gold, acute after 1928, had by 1933 forced most countries off the gold standard as the prewar system of international payments broke down. ●●

1933 United States leaves the gold standard, 1933 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Orders completed on April 20, 1933, took the United States off the gold standard. Unlike Britain in 1931, Washington left gold voluntarily to pursue a domestic policy of price inflation. ●●

1933 World Monetary and Economic Conference, London 1933 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The dispute over whether to prioritize currency stabilization or domestic recovery peaked at the World Monetary and Economic Conference in London, June 12 to July 27, 1933. No agreement was reached. ●●

1933 Roosevelt breaks off stabilization talks ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When a mere hint of a stabilization deal broke the rise in US security and commodity prices in June 1933, Roosevelt broke off all negotiations toward stabilization on July 3, 1933. ●●

1933 Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Backed by industrialists and arranged through Papen, Hitler took office as chancellor on January 30, 1933, in a cabinet with only two other Nazis. Quigley notes it seemed impossible he could gain control, yet within eighteen months he was dictator. ●●

1933 Reichstag fire decree suspends civil liberties ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The day after the Reichstag fire, February 28, 1933, Hindenburg signed a decree suspending civil liberties and empowering the government to search homes and confiscate property. Communist deputies were arrested en masse. ●●

1933 Enabling Act passed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The new Reichstag, meeting March 23, 1933, was asked to pass an enabling act giving the government four years to legislate by decree without the president's signature. It passed 441 to 94. ●●

1933 Concordat between the Nazi state and the Vatican ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Catholic Church withdrew its condemnation of Nazism on March 28, 1933, and signed a Concordat with von Papen on July 20. The agreement began to break down almost immediately. ●●

1933 Gustav Krupp welcomes Hitler's rise for industry ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Writing to Hitler in April 1933 as official representative of the Reich Association of German Industry, Gustav Krupp said the turn of events matched wishes he and his board had long cherished. Quigley cites this as proof industry backed Hitler. ●●

1933 Nazi law makes cartels compulsory ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A law of July 15, 1933, let the economics minister make cartels compulsory, regulate plant capacity, and bar new enterprises. Quigley argues this let big business destroy competition to the benefit of profits. ●●

1933 Banking Act of 1933 separates banking functions ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Banking Act of 1933 separated investment banking from deposit banking, part of the New Deal's effort to curb the power of finance after the 1929-1933 collapse. ●●

1933 Red Vienna's social housing program ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After coming to power in Vienna in 1918, the Social Democrats built almost 60,000 dwellings by 1933, mostly huge apartment houses with parks, clinics, and other facilities, funded by taxes and let at very low rents. ●●

1933 Dollfuss ends Austrian parliamentary government ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 4 March 1933 the Dollfuss government was beaten in parliament by one vote, then threw out a vote on a technicality and used the uproar as an excuse to prevent by force any further meetings of parliament, ruling thereafter by decree. ●●

1933 Quigley links Schroeder Bank to Hitler's 1933 chancellorship ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that the Schroeder Bank in Cologne helped arrange Hitler's accession as chancellor in January 1933, connecting Allen Dulles's banking ties to this network. He raises it while describing Dulles's role in the Iranian coup. ●●

1933 Good Neighbor Policy announced ai_extracted 1 cit. no story President Roosevelt's Good Neighbor Policy of 1933 reduced US intervention in Latin America while retaining investment. Quigley attributes it partly to New Deal idealism and partly to Latin America's dependence on American funds and markets in the depression. ●●

1933 First unofficial Commonwealth Relations conference, Toronto (1933) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The first unofficial conference on British Commonwealth relations was held at Toronto, 11-21 September 1933, funded by the Carnegie Corporation. Quigley says the Milner Group initiated and controlled it. ●●

1933 Committee on Technocracy collapses ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Columbia Committee on Technocracy fell apart in January 1933 amid Scott's premature claims and questions about his credentials. ●●

1933 Humanist Manifesto I published ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the peak of Technocracy interest in 1933, the Humanist Manifesto I was published, calling for religion to come to terms with science and economic change. ●●

1933 Rockefeller Foundation announces program to control human behavior ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto reports that on April 11, 1933, Rockefeller Foundation president Max Mason told insiders a national program was underway to allow the control of human behavior. Gatto argues schooling was central to this design. ●●

1933 Edna Heidbredder publishes Seven Psychologies, 1933 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites Edna Heidbredder's 1933 book Seven Psychologies, which described behaviorism's aggressive spread as a crusade and cult. ●●

1933 James Bryant Conant serves as president of Harvard ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that James Bryant Conant was president of Harvard from 1933 to 1953. He casts Conant as a central figure who defended the Prussian-style transformation of American schooling. ●●

1933 Roosevelt confiscates citizens' gold ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book says that in 1933 the Network convinced President Roosevelt to confiscate US citizens' gold and hand it to the Federal Reserve. It argues this let the Fed print debt money without gold limits. ●●

1933 Hitler's 1933 seizure of power in Germany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book refers to Hitler's 1933 German coup, saying he had murdered and oppressed people from day one. It argues the Network tolerated this and objected only to his open use of force. ●●

1933 Reichstag fire before the March 1933 German election ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book, citing Quigley, describes a plot to burn the Reichstag and blame Communists ahead of the March 5, 1933 election. It says the fire was used to justify suspending civil liberties and mass arrests. ●●

1933 State bank holidays cascade across America ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After Michigan closed its banks on February 14, 1933, governor after governor followed, with Indiana, Maryland, Arkansas, and Ohio shutting their banks in late February. The closures spread panic nationwide. ●●

1933 Hoover and Roosevelt clash over the banks ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On March 3, 1933, the eve of inauguration, Hoover pressed Roosevelt to join him in closing the banks, and Roosevelt refused in blunt terms. Each waited for the other as the banking system unraveled. ●●

1933 New York and Illinois close their banks ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the early hours of March 4, 1933, Governor Lehman proclaimed a three-day bank holiday in New York, and Governor Horner of Illinois followed an hour later. The nation's financial center shut as Roosevelt was about to be inaugurated. ●●

1933 The banking system grinds to a halt ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By early March 1933 the banking systems of 28 states were completely closed and the rest partly so. Over three years bank credit had shrunk from $50 billion to $30 billion, a quarter of banks had collapsed, and 13 million were jobless. ●●

1933 Roosevelt declares a national bank holiday ai_extracted 1 cit. no story One day into his presidency, Roosevelt closed every bank in the country, invoking the 1917 Trading with the Enemy Act. He also suspended the export and private hoarding of gold in the United States. ●●