Events, Verisoph

1838 J. P. Morgan and Company's origins, 1838 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley notes that J. P. Morgan and Company began in London as George Peabody and Company in 1838 and remained an unincorporated private partnership until 1940. ●●

1838 Quigley: J. P. Morgan replaces the Rothschilds (Peabody origin 1838) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley traces the dominance of investment bankers, saying the Rothschilds, preeminent in the nineteenth century, were replaced by J. P. Morgan, whose firm had originated as George Peabody and Company in 1838. ●●

1838 Schneider family acquires Le Creusot ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Schneider family acquired the Le Creusot ironworks in 1838. Favored by Napoleon III, the plant emerged as the chief metal company in France. ●●

19 April 1839 Independence of Luxembourg 0 cit. no story The Treaty of London establishes Luxembourg as an independent grand duchy in personal union with the Dutch king; full neutrality followed in 1867. politics ●●

1839 Brownson attacks German-style teacher seminaries ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites Orestes Brownson, who in 1839 charged that proposals for German-style teacher seminaries in America were a disguised attack on local and popular autonomy. ●●

1839 Britain fights two Opium Wars with China ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Britain's two "opium wars" with China, in 1839-42 and 1855-60, are classic cases of a state using military means to make another state engage in a for... ●●

1839 Lin Zexu arrives in Canton to end opium trade ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 10 March 1839 an imperial official named Lin Zexu arrived in Canton under orders from the Daoguang Emperor to stamp out the trade once and for all. ●●

1839 Bank of the United States collapses ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Bank of the United States, which the Rothschilds had hoped would develop into a strong American banking presence, collapsed due to political and financial mismanagement. ●●

1839 John D. Rockefeller born in Richford, New York ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John Davison Rockefeller Sr. is born on July 8, 1839, in Richford, New York. By this time, Richford was acquiring the amenities of a small town with sawmills, gristmills, a distillery, schoolhouse, and church. ●●

1839 First Opium War humiliates China ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Britain exploited China's internal decline through the Opium War of 1839-1842, generating the profound sense of cultural humiliation that motivated Chinese throughout the twentieth century. ●●

1839 First Opium War begins over opium ban ai_extracted 1 cit. no story China’s “century of humiliation” began in 1839 when the Qing government tried to ban imports of opium and were forced by the British to open their ports during the First Opium War. ●●

1839 Ottoman Tanzimat reforms dismantle the millet system ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Earlier in the century, the Ottoman rulers’ pursuit of Tanzimat (‘reorganization’) brought modernizing reforms in edicts of 1839 and 1856 which dismantled the millet system of separate religious communities ●●

1840 Gatto cites high U.S. literacy by 1840 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto claims data show that by 1840 complex literacy in the United States ranged between 93 and 100 percent, before compulsory schooling existed. ●●

1840 Connecticut census records near-universal literacy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites the Connecticut census of 1840, which recorded only one illiterate citizen out of every 579, as evidence of high early American literacy. ●●

1840 Massachusetts School Committee holds secret schooling discussions ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto claims that beginning around 1840 a group calling itself the Massachusetts School Committee, often led by Horace Mann, held secret discussions with New England political and business leaders about universal schooling. ●●

1840 Mercein v. People asserts state sovereignty over children ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites the 1840 case Mercein v. People, in which Justice Paige wrote that a child owes allegiance to the government at birth. Gatto reads it as a strong-state, Hegelian claim on children. ●●

1840 Orestes Brownson publishes 'The Laboring Classes' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites Orestes Brownson's 1840 article 'The Laboring Classes' in The Boston Quarterly Review, which charged that Horace Mann was trying to build a state church through schooling. He uses it as an early warning against compulsion schooling. ●●

1840 Western Railroad connects Worcester and Albany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Except for the Western, which in 1840 became the first intersectional railroad in the country by connecting Worcester and Albany, no road before 1850 ●●

1840 Psi Upsilon Beta chapter founded at Yale ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Levenda notes that the second chapter of Psi Upsilon was founded at Yale University and became known as The Fence Club in 1934. ●●

1842 Treaties of Nanking (1842) and Tientsin (1858) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After Chinese destruction of illegal opium, Britain imposed the treaties of Nanking (1842) and Tientsin (1858), forcing China to cede Hong Kong and open ports to foreign trade. ●●

1842 British army destroyed retreating from Kabul ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A British-led military expedition of over 16,000 soldiers and camp followers was forced to flee Kabul in 1842 and was devastated en route to Jalalabad, with nearly all members killed. ●●

1842 Grove demonstrates heat and light as affections of matter ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Sir William Grove, in a lecture at the London Institution, was the first to demonstrate that heat and light may be considered as affections of matter itself, not of a distinct ethereal fluid. ●●

1842 Menabrea describes the Analytical Engine ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Italian engineer Luigi Menabrea publishes, with Babbage's help, a detailed French account of the Analytical Engine that Ada Lovelace will later translate and annotate. ●●

1843 Horace Mann's Seventh Report praises Prussian schooling ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto describes Horace Mann's 1843 Seventh Report to the Boston School Committee, which ranked Prussia first among nations in schooling and recommended the Prussian whole-word reading method. ●●

1843 Children make up half of American coal miners ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto states that by 1843, when Horace Mann visited Prussia, boys and girls aged five to eight worked in every American coal mine and that half of all coal miners were children. ●●

1843 Ada Lovelace's Notes on the Analytical Engine appear ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Ada Lovelace's translation and extensive original notes on the Analytical Engine appear in Scientific Memoirs, laying out the concept of a general-purpose programmable machine. ●●

27 February 1844 Independence of the Dominican Republic 0 cit. no story Dominican rebels proclaim independence from Haiti, ending twenty-two years of Haitian rule over the eastern part of Hispaniola. politics / war ●●●

1844 Horace Mann's European tour and Seventh Report ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto describes Horace Mann's 1843 European tour, which led to his 1844 Seventh Report to the Boston School Committee attacking the practice of beginning reading with the alphabet. ●●

1844 Bank of England granted currency monopoly ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Britain granted the Bank of England a monopoly of currency in 1844, though Scottish banks and some grandfathered English banks kept issuing notes. The last private English banknotes were issued in 1921. ●●

21 December 1845 to 22 December 1845 Battle of Ferozeshah wikidata 0 cit. no story 1845 battle ●●

December 1845 to March 1849 Anglo-Sikh Wars 0 cit. no story The British East India Company defeats the Sikh Empire in two hard-fought wars. The victory annexes the Punjab, completing British control of India. war ●●●

1845 Texas annexed to the United States ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Following the war with Mexico, huge chunks of land including Texas are annexed to the United States, triggering expansion fever and investment speculation across America. ●●

1845 Taufa'ahau crowned King George I of Tonga ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1845 Thomas had the satisfaction of adapting English coronation rites for Taufa’ahau’s enthronement as King George I, founding a royal dynasty which endures to this day ●●

1846 to 1860 Third cholera pandemic wikidata 0 cit. no story 1846-1860 worldwide pandemic ●●●

25 April 1846 to 2 February 1848 Mexican-American War 0 cit. no story The United States defeats Mexico and takes its capital. The peace transfers roughly half of Mexico's territory, including California and the Southwest, to the United States. politics / war ●●●●

1846 Great Britain repeals the Corn Laws ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Great Britain begins the expansion of a global system of commerce organized around open trade by repealing the Corn Laws ●●

26 July 1847 Independence of Liberia 0 cit. no story Liberia, founded as a settlement for freed African Americans, declares itself an independent republic, Africa's first. politics / society ●●●

1847 'Best interest of the child' test entered in New York court ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto describes a second court authorization for intervention in family life. In 1847 Judge Oakley of the New York City Superior Court advanced the 'best interest of the child' test as governed by fixed rules. ●●

1847 George Lippard publishes Washington and his Generals ai_extracted 1 cit. no story American social reformer and muckraker George Lippard, a friend of Edgar Allan Poe, published 'Washington and his Generals, or Legends of the Revolution,' which included the story 'The Speech of the Unknown' about a mysterious robed orator at the Declaration of Independence signing. ●●

1847 Steamship line opens New York to Bremen service ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1847 an American sponsored, German financed and owned line began services between New York and Bremen ●●

1847 Boole devises an algebra for logic ai_extracted 1 cit. no story George Boole develops a symbolic algebra for expressing logical statements, later used to design switching circuits. ●●

15 March 1848 to 4 October 1849 Hungarian Revolution of 1848 wikidata 0 cit. no story European Revolution of 1848 ●●●

22 February 1848 to 2 December 1848 French Revolution of 1848 wikidata 0 cit. no story one of a wave of revolutions in 1848 in Europe ●●●

1 March 1848 to November 1848 Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg empire wikidata 0 cit. no story bourgeois-democratic motivated revolutions ●●●

March 1848 March Revolution in Berlin wikidata 0 cit. no story revolution from 1848 till 1849 in Berlin ●●●

September 1848 to 13 August 1849 Hungarian War of Independence 0 cit. no story Hungary fights for independence from Habsburg Austria during the revolutions of 1848. Austria wins only after calling in a Russian army, and executes the rebel generals. politics / war ●●●

March 1848 to 1852 First Schleswig War 0 cit. no story Denmark and German nationalists backed by Prussia fight over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Denmark keeps the duchies, but the dispute reignites in 1864. politics / war ●●

c. 1848 to c. 1866 Wars of Italian Unification 0 cit. no story Piedmont, aided by France and by Garibaldi's volunteers, fights Austria and the Italian states in three wars of independence. The campaigns unite most of Italy under the House of Savoy by 1866, with Rome added in 1870. politics / war ●●●●

1848 Marx's Communist Manifesto, 1848 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley places the Romantic period as culminating in Marx's Communist Manifesto of 1848, which located the key to man's social position in past struggles. ●●

1848 Rules of the Stokes County School ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto reproduces the November 10, 1848 disciplinary code of the Stokes County School under master William A. Chaffin, listing offenses and their prescribed lashes. ●●

1848 Massachusetts passes first modern formal adoption law ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that four years before the 1852 compulsion law, the Massachusetts legislature passed an adoption act. He calls it the first formal adoption legislation anywhere since the Roman Empire. ●●

1848 Carl Schurz's first view of America ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto quotes German immigrant Carl Schurz, who in 1848 remarked on first seeing America how little a people needs to be governed. Gatto uses it to contrast American liberty with heavy government. ●●

1848 Metternich driven from power ai_extracted 1 cit. no story er states bore the brunt of thwarting Russian expansionism. Metternich’s removal from the scene in 1848 marked the beginning of the end of the high-wi ●●

1848 Revolutions break out across continental Europe ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The year 1848 saw the outbreak of revolutions in virtually every continental European country and has been compared to the 2011 Arab Spring. ●●

1849 Death of Gutle Rothschild, family matriarch ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gutle Rothschild, widow of Mayer Amschel and matriarch of the family, died on May 7 at age 96. She symbolized family continuity by remaining in the original Frankfurt house despite the family's immense wealth. ●●

1849 Erie Railroad reaches Owego, New York ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On June 1, 1849, the Erie Railroad first arrives in Owego, New York, with thousands of spectators cheering from hillsides. The event transforms isolated town economies and awakens residents to new opportunities. ●●

1849 Great fire destroys downtown Owego ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On September 27, 1849, a catastrophic fire consumes 104 downtown buildings in Owego, New York, sparing only three stores. The disaster presages a booming lumber business as the town is rebuilt. ●●

1849 Harvey Spelman elected to Ohio legislature ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Harvey Buel Spelman is elected as a member of the Ohio state legislature in 1849, a position he achieved by spearheading creation of a progressive public-school system in Akron. ●●

1849 Prussia adopts three-tier male suffrage ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Prussia, for example, adopted universal male suffrage in 1849, but under a three-tier voting system and an open ballot that wasn’t abolished until 1918. ●●

1849 Coinage Act of 1849 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ” (It didn’t do that until fifty-seven years later in The Coinage Act of 1849 ●●

1850 Marx formulates the class struggle, about 1850 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Around 1850 Karl Marx built his theory of an inevitable class struggle on the polarized two-class society then emerging under industrial capitalism. ●●

1850 Monongahela site on the Underground Railroad in the 1850s ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that his hometown of Monongahela was a stop on the Underground Railroad, with the barn of the Anawalt house used for that purpose through the 1850s. ●●

1850 International bankers command London money markets ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book cites Quigley that by 1850 a London-centered group of financiers could tap the power of the Stock Exchange, the Bank of England and the London money market. It presents them as aspiring to dynasties of international bankers. ●●

1851 to August 1868 Nian Rebellion 0 cit. no story Bandit-led rebel armies ravage northern China alongside the Taiping Rebellion. The revolt further drains the Qing dynasty's strength. society / war ●●●

1851 O'Sullivan equips a war vessel against Cuba, 1851 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto recounts that in 1851 New York regent John O'Sullivan equipped a war vessel for an attack on Cuba; the ship was seized in New York harbor. ●●

1851 Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad reaches Cleveland ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad arrives in 1851, it creates excellent opportunities for transport by both water and rail, setting the stage for Cleveland's commercial boom. ●●

1852 Gladstone on leaving the Money Power supreme, 1852 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley cites Chancellor Gladstone's 1852 statement that government was not to be a substantive power in finance but should leave the Money Power supreme and unquestioned. ●●

1852 Establishment of the Crédit Mobilier ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley takes the establishment of the Crédit Mobilier in 1852 as the opening date of French financial capitalism. This mixed bank became the model for the later German credit banks. ●●

1852 Massachusetts passes the first state compulsory schooling law ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto centers the compulsion campaign on Massachusetts, which passed the first state compulsory attendance law in 1852. He notes the long gap before other states followed. ●●

1852 Three most influential American books published during schooling's rise ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto argues that the three most influential books published in North America (aside from the Bible and the New England Primer) appeared during the utopian transformation that produced government schooling: Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), Ben-Hur (1880), and Looking Backwards (1888). ●●

1852 Pereire brothers found the Credit Mobilier ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Crédit Mobilier was founded on November 20, 1852 by the Pereire brothers as an innovative investment bank that challenged the Rothschilds' monopoly over French finance through joint-stock banking principles. ●●

1852 Napoleon III proclaimed Emperor of the French ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On December 2, 1852, one year after his coup, Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor of the French. French bond prices surged in response, creating significant investment gains for the Rothschilds. ●●

1852 Napoleon III announces French debt conversion ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On March 14, 1852, Napoleon III announced a large debt conversion reducing interest rates from 5 to 4.5 percent on French government bonds, with Rothschild assistance in supporting the operation. ●●

1852 Rothschilds acquire a gold refinery lease ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Anthony Rothschild acquired a lease for a gold refinery in January 1852. By December, Lionel secured permission to supply refined gold and silver directly to the Bank of England. ●●

1852 Gnostic sarcophagus discovered near the Porta Pia ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A marble sarcophagus was discovered in 1852 near the Porta Pia containing Gnostic-Christian artifacts, including leaden plates with Ophite imagery and inscriptions. The discovery provides evidence of early Christian and Gnostic syncretism. ●●

1852 Death of Ada Lovelace ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Ada Lovelace dies at thirty-six and is buried beside the father she never knew. ●●

1853 Commodore Perry's black ships reach Japan (1853) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1853 Commodore Matthew Perry's steam warships sailed into Tokyo Bay, shocking the Japanese and giving restive feudal lords a pretext to end Tokugawa rule. ●●

1853 Founding of the Darmstädter Bank ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The German credit banks, founded 1848-1881, tied themselves closely to industry. Quigley dates the intimate bank-industry relationship to the creation of the Darmstädter Bank in 1853. ●●

1853 Darmstadter Bank founded to rival the Rothschilds ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On April 2, 1853, Abraham Oppenheim and Gustave Mevissen founded the Darmstädter Bank near Frankfurt with Pereire backing, establishing a German competitor to Rothschild dominance. ●●

1853 Commodore Perry's black ships reach Japan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The entire military system ossified for two centuries, so that when Commodore Perry’s famous “black ships” arrived in 1853, there was little that an overawed Japanese government could do except grant ●●

1853 Argentina adopts its national constitution ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Argentina did not get a constitution until 1853, and it was not until 1880 that the final regional rebellions and Indian uprisings had been suppressed, and Buenos Aires made the national capital. ●●

1853 Commodore Perry's black ships reach Japan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Commodore Matthew Perry’s “black ships” in 1853 and presents a paradigmatic case of what Samuel Huntington labeled “defensive modernization. ●●

1853 Holman Hunt paints The Light of the World ai_extracted 1 cit. no story One of the greatest successes was achieved by William Holman Hunt, an English ‘Pre-Raphaelite’ artist and a strenuously if unconventionally devout Anglican, who in 1853 created an endearingly intimate image of the Saviour bearing a lighted lamp, brin ●●

1853 F.D. Maurice dismissed from King's College London ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Maurice, a convert from Unitarianism to Anglicanism, lost his professorial chair at King’s College, London, in 1853 for a series of theological essays which suggested that the notion of eternal punishment was a misunderstanding of the biblical messag ●●

1853 Erie Canal lines consolidate into New York Central ai_extracted 1 cit. no story These threatened to become intolerable when, in the spring of 1853, the short lines along the Erie Canal consolidated to form a single enterprise, the ●●

1854 Crimean War and the Congress of Paris, 1854-1856 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Great Power intervention against Russia led to the Crimean War of 1854-1856 and the Congress of Paris of 1856, which sought to bar future Russian meddling in Turkish affairs. ●●

1854 India's modern postal, telegraph, and rail systems begin, 1854 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story India's modern postal, telegraphic, and railroad systems all began in 1854, eventually tying the subcontinent together under British rule. ●●

1854 Junius Morgan moves to London ai_extracted 1 cit. no story WHEN Morgan moved to London in 1854, it was a more auspicious time for an American banker than it had been when Peabody was flogging the hated Maryland bonds in the 1830s. American grain prices soared... ●●

1854 Crimean War breaks out ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Crimean War began in March 1854 over disputes concerning religious rights in Jerusalem, marking the first major European conflict since 1815 and creating significant financial opportunities for Rothschild war lending. ●●

1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act passes Congress ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Kansas-Nebraska Act is passed in May 1854, allowing territorial residents to decide slavery question by popular sovereignty. It intensely divides the nation and informs John D. Rockefeller's abolitionist essays. ●●

1854 Commodore Perry forcibly opens Japan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story For 500 years before it was forcibly opened by Commodore Matthew Perry in 1854, Japan did not even deign to balance the barbarians off against each ot ●●

1854 UK establishes the Meteorological Office ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This was a transformative idea. In 1854 the government established a Meteorological Office in the Board of Trade. ●●

1855 John D. Rockefeller starts work at Hewitt and Tuttle ai_extracted 2 cit. no story On September 26, 1855, seventeen-year-old John D. Rockefeller begins working as an unpaid apprentice bookkeeper at Hewitt and Tuttle, a Cleveland commission house. He celebrates this day for the rest of his life as "Job Day." ●●

1855 Creditanstalt chartered in Vienna ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Austrian Credit Institute for Commerce and Industry is formally chartered on November 6. Rothschilds retain 40% of shares. ●●

1855 Britain establishes Civil Service Commission ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1855, an Order of Council established a Civil Service Commission that authorized competition for a small number of jobs. ●●

1856 to 1873 Panthay Rebellion 0 cit. no story Hui Muslims in Yunnan rebel against Qing rule and establish a separate sultanate at Dali. The suppression kills up to a million people. religion / war ●●●

1856 French government halts securities issues ai_extracted 1 cit. no story During a speculative frenzy in the early 1850s, losses to security buyers were so severe that on 9 March 1856 the French government temporarily prohibited any further issue of securities in Paris. ●●

1856 Bessemer process transforms steelmaking ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto describes the steel revolution that reshaped society. The 1856 Bessemer process allowed steel to be made directly from pig iron, enabling steel rails, structural steel, and large trusts. ●●

1856 Rothschilds win Lombard and Italian railway concessions ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Rothschilds defeat Pereires for Lombard and Central Italian railway concessions. ●●

1856 Aby Warburg dies; Sara takes sole control ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Aby wrote his will and died. Sara became sole authority over family and bank during the imperial era. ●●