Events, Verisoph

1945 Magruder keeps OSS operations alive under new name ai_extracted 1 cit. no story General Magruder reversed Truman's OSS decision by obtaining authorization to continue operations under a new name. ●●

1945 Robert Ley commits suicide before Nuremberg trial ai_extracted 1 cit. no story We might note two events of special Warburg interest. On October 25, 1945, Dr. Robert Ley, former Nazi nemesis of Max Warburg, committed suicide in hi... ●●

1945 Nuremberg establishes crimes against humanity 0 cit. The Nuremberg trials hold individuals accountable under a new body of international law for crimes against humanity and aggression. They asserted that a global legal order could stand above the sovereignty of states, the ambition of the state, law, and coercion pillar. pillar / politics / war ●●●

1945 Operation Paperclip brings the Nazi rocketeers to America 1 cit. The United States secretly recruits von Braun and hundreds of German scientists, whitewashing their Nazi records, to win the coming missile and space race. The man who bombed London for Hitler would soon build America's path to the Moon. science / war ●●●●

1945 Nagoya firebombing ai_extracted 1 cit. no story From Chapter 17 of The Making of the Atomic Bomb: Nagoya firebombing ●●

1945 Osaka firebombing ai_extracted 1 cit. no story From Chapter 17 of The Making of the Atomic Bomb: Osaka firebombing ●●

1945 Oak Ridge ships bomb-grade U235 to Los Alamos ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Oak Ridge began shipping bomb-grade U235 to Los Alamos. ●●

1945 Szilard petitions against using the atomic bomb ai_extracted 1 cit. no story in replying to Szilard about a petition Szilard was then circulating among Manhattan Project scientists protesting the bomb’s impending use: First of all let me say that I have no hope of clearing my conscience. ●●

1945 Stimson bars Kyoto from atomic bomb targets ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Henry Stimson overrules military targeting committee to spare Kyoto as cultural and religious center ●●

1945 Joint Chiefs order Operation Olympic invasion of Kyushu ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Joint Chiefs of Staff issue Operation OLYMPIC directive with November 1 target date for invading southernmost Japanese home island ●●

1945 Interim Committee meets with the Scientific Panel ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Full Interim Committee convenes with Nobel laureate scientists to discuss atomic bomb implications ●●

1945 Enola Gay loaded with the Little Boy bomb ai_extracted 1 cit. no story B-29 bomber christened Enola Gay and loaded with world's first combat atomic bomb at Tinian Island ●●

1945 Enola Gay takes off for Hiroshima ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Enola Gay departs Tinian at 0245 hours August 6, 1945, bound for Hiroshima with atomic bomb ●●

1945 Bock's Car departs Tinian for Nagasaki ai_extracted 1 cit. no story B-29 Bock's Car carrying Fat Man atomic bomb departs Tinian at 0347 hours August 9 ●●

1945 Shannon completes classified cryptography report ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ted, “a secrecy system is almost identical with a noisy communication system. ”♦ (He completed his report, “A Mathematical Theory of Cryptography,” in 1945; it was immediately classified. ●●

1945 Von Neumann assembles computer team at Princeton IAS ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In late 1945, at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, Hungarian American mathematician John von Neumann gathered a small group o ●●

1945 Japan announces acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration ai_extracted 1 cit. no story There were a number of important legal steps leading up to this result, including the August 16, 1945, announcement by the emperor that Japan had accepted the Potsdam Declaration and unconditional surrender, and the Imperial Rescript of January 1, 19 ●●

1945 ELAS agrees to armistice in Greece ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In mid-January 1945 ELAS agreed to an armistice, one that had much of the appear-ance and the effect of a surrender ●●

1945 Gary school desegregation strike ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Levenda describes the Gary School Strike in fall 1945, where high school students boycotted classes over desegregation plans. He notes his father Leonard Levenda was considered a leader of the boycott. ●●

c. 1945 Project SHAMROCK collects cable traffic 0 cit. Predating and later absorbed by the NSA, Project SHAMROCK obtains copies of international telegrams entering and leaving the United States through arrangements with major telegraph companies. It runs for roughly three decades until exposed and terminated in 1975, revealed by the Church Committee as one of the longest-running warrantless surveillance programs against Americans. politics / technology ●●

19 February 1945 Battle of Iwo Jima 0 cit. U.S. Marines landed on the fortified island of Iwo Jima in one of the bloodiest battles of the Pacific War, needed to secure an airfield for emergency B-29 landings and fighter escorts. The flag-raising on Mount Suribachi, photographed by Joe Rosenthal, became one of the most iconic images of the war. Nearly 7,000 Marines were killed in over a month of fighting against a deeply entrenched Japanese garrison. war ●●●

13 February 1945 Bombing of Dresden 0 cit. British and American bombers firebombed the German city of Dresden over three days, creating a firestorm that killed an estimated 25,000 people, most of them civilians. The raid became one of the most controversial Allied actions of the war because Dresden had limited military-industrial significance and the city was crowded with refugees. It remains a central example cited in debates over the morality of area bombing. war ●●●

1945 Vannevar Bush publishes 'As We May Think' ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Bush's essay imagined the memex, a personal machine for storing and linking information. ●●

1945 ENIAC becomes fully operational ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After a year of construction, ENIAC becomes fully operational, able to perform five thousand additions per second. ●●

1945 Vannevar Bush delivers Science, the Endless Frontier ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bush's report to the president argues for government funding of basic research through universities and industry, shaping postwar American science policy. ●●

26 December 1945 CFA franc created for French colonial Africa 0 cit. France created the Franc des Colonies Françaises d'Afrique (CFA franc) by decree, giving its African colonies a currency pegged to the French franc. After independence in the 1960s, the peg and the arrangement continued largely unchanged, and the CFA franc is still used today by 14 African countries organized into two zones, each with its own central bank. It is the most documented and longest-running currency arrangement tying former colonies to their former ruler. economy ●●●

1945 World Federation of Trade Unions founded ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Out of the euphoria of the anti-fascist victory, the World Federation of Trade Unions was formed, uniting nearly all of world labour outside the American Federation of Labor. ●●

26 June 1945 United Nations Charter Restricts the Use of Force 0 cit. Founding members signed the United Nations Charter, which in Article 2(4) bars member states from the threat or use of force against another state's territorial integrity or political independence, except in self-defense or with Security Council authorization. The Charter extended the idea of legitimate versus illegitimate force from the domestic to the international level, attempting to make interstate war itself subject to collective legal limits. It remains the primary international legal framework governing when states may use armed force. diplomacy / war ●●●

8 May 1945 Sétif and Guelma Massacres 0 cit. On the day Europe celebrated victory over Germany, French police killed Algerian demonstrators marching for independence in Sétif, triggering an uprising in which dozens of European settlers were killed. French colonial forces, settler militias, and the air force responded with weeks of reprisal killings against Algerian civilians across the region. Death toll estimates range from the low thousands cited by French officials at the time to 20,000 or more claimed by Algerian nationalist sources; most independent historians place the figure in the range of 6,000 to 8,000 or higher. politics / war ●●●

c. 1945 Frances Glessner Lee creates the Nutshell Studies of Unexplained Death 0 cit. Frances Glessner Lee, a wealthy heiress often called the mother of forensic science, built a series of detailed miniature crime scene dioramas, the Nutshell Studies of Unexplained Death, to train police investigators in careful observation of physical evidence. She used them in seminars for Harvard's department of legal medicine, one of the first formal forensic training programs for police in the United States. The dioramas are still used in forensic training today. science ●●

October 1945 Fifth Pan-African Congress in Manchester 0 cit. The Fifth Pan-African Congress brought together future leaders including Kwame Nkrumah and Jomo Kenyatta. Unlike earlier meetings, it called openly for the end of colonial rule and for African self-government. Many of its delegates went on to lead independence campaigns in their home countries. politics / society ●●●

17 August 1945 Sukarno proclaims Indonesian independence 0 cit. Days after Japan's surrender, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesia independent from Dutch colonial rule. The Netherlands tried to reassert control, leading to four years of armed and diplomatic struggle. The proclamation marked the birth of the Indonesian republic. politics / war ●●●

2 September 1945 Ho Chi Minh declares Vietnamese independence 0 cit. Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Viet Minh, declared Vietnam independent, quoting the American Declaration of Independence in his speech. France sought to restore colonial rule, leading to the First Indochina War. The declaration opened three decades of conflict over Vietnam's future. politics / war ●●●

c. 1945 Rise of the évolués 0 cit. A small educated urban class known as the évolués grew after the Second World War, mostly clerks, teachers, and skilled workers trained in mission and colonial schools. They pressed for equal treatment and an end to the colour bar, at first seeking reform rather than independence. Their frustration with colonial limits helped seed the nationalist movement. politics / society ●●

20 November 1945 to 1946 Nuremberg trials of Nazi leaders 1 cit. An international military tribunal tries surviving Nazi leaders for crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. Twelve defendants are sentenced to death, and the trials establish that following orders is no defense and shape modern international law. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

15 August 1945 Korea's liberation and division 0 cit. Japan's surrender ended 35 years of colonial rule over Korea. Instead of full independence, the peninsula was split at the 38th parallel into Soviet and American zones of occupation. The division hardened into two rival states and led to the Korean War. politics / war ●●

6 August 1945 Congolese uranium in the Hiroshima bomb 0 cit. Historians of the Manhattan Project record that much of the uranium for the first atomic bombs, including the weapon dropped on Hiroshima, came from the Shinkolobwe mine in the Belgian Congo. The colony supplied a decisive strategic material for the nuclear age. It received almost nothing in return, and Congolese people had no say in how their ground was used. science / technology / war ●●●

26 December 1945 Creation of the CFA franc 0 cit. France creates the CFA franc as a single currency for its African colonies, pegged to the French franc and guaranteed by the French treasury. The arrangement tied African money to Paris and required member states to hold much of their reserves in France. It set up a monetary link that would outlast the colonies themselves. economy / politics ●●

26 June 1945 The UN Charter is signed at San Francisco 0 cit. Delegates from fifty nations signed the Charter of the United Nations, pledging to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war. The document opened with the words We the peoples and set out goals of peace, human rights, and social progress. It was the fullest statement of the founding ideal, written even as the atomic age was about to begin. diplomacy / politics ●●●

24 October 1945 The United Nations comes into being 0 cit. The Charter entered into force once the major powers ratified it, and the United Nations formally existed. The date is still marked as United Nations Day. A body was now in place that claimed to speak for all humanity, though real authority sat with a handful of victorious powers. diplomacy / politics ●●

June 1945 Five victors take permanent seats and the power of veto 0 cit. The Charter gave the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain, France, and China permanent seats on the Security Council, each with the power to veto any substantive decision. The arrangement locked the 1945 balance of power into the organization's core. It meant that no action could be taken against the interests of any great power, whatever the majority wished. diplomacy / politics ●●●

February 1945 Saudi Arabia as pillar of Western influence in the Gulf 0 cit. The 1945 meeting between Franklin Roosevelt and King Abdulaziz sealed a lasting bargain of Saudi oil for American security. The United States armed and protected the absolute monarchy for decades, and both funded anti-communist and anti-Soviet causes, from Afghanistan to Angola. Western powers kept close ties despite the kingdom's harsh internal rule. diplomacy / economy ●●●

c. 1945 Counting the dead and the long postwar silence 0 cit. Estimates of Roma killed in the Porajmos are usually given as 250,000 to 500,000, though the true number is uncertain and some scholars, such as Ian Hancock, argue it was far higher, possibly over a million. Poor records and the murder of whole communities make a precise count impossible. For decades after the war the genocide went largely unrecognized, and West German courts long denied survivors compensation by claiming the Roma had been persecuted as criminals rather than on racial grounds. politics / society / war ●●●

17 August 1945 Indonesia proclaims independence 0 cit. Days after Japan surrenders, Sukarno and Hatta declare Indonesian independence. The Dutch refuse to accept it and try to reconquer the islands, beginning four years of revolution and war. politics / war ●●●

c. 1945 The Making of the Mau Mau Grievance 0 cit. Land hunger in the reserves, squatter evictions, the colour bar, and the frustration of a generation shut out of both land and advancement built into the grievance that erupted as Mau Mau in the 1950s. The Kikuyu, with the Embu and Meru, bore the sharpest edge of settler colonialism and so produced its fiercest revolt, covered in depth in the Mau Mau and loyalist threads. Colonial rule then split the community itself, arming Kikuyu loyalists against Kikuyu fighters in what became partly a civil war. economy / politics / war ●●●

October 1945 The Fifth Pan-African Congress at Manchester 0 cit. Kenyatta helped organise the Fifth Pan-African Congress in Manchester in October 1945 alongside Kwame Nkrumah, George Padmore, and W.E.B. Du Bois. The congress demanded independence for Africa and marked a shift from petition toward a mass anti-colonial programme. It placed Kenyatta at the centre of a generation of leaders who would go on to rule newly independent African states. diplomacy / politics ●●●

c. 1945 The Ex-Askari Return to Landlessness and the Colour Bar 0 cit. Demobilized African soldiers came home from the war to find the same overcrowded reserves, the same locked White Highlands, and a colour bar that reserved good jobs, pay, and land for Europeans. Many former askari had no plot to return to and drifted into Nairobi, jobless and bitter, their war service unrewarded while white veterans received land grants. This pool of trained, angry, and disillusioned ex-soldiers became a key source of the militancy that fed the trade unions, the Forty Group, and eventually Mau Mau. politics / society / war ●●●

c. 1945 King's African Rifles veterans return to Kenya 0 cit. Kikuyu men who had served in the King's African Rifles in Burma, India, Ethiopia and the Horn came home after the war. Many returned with military training but no land, no steady work and little of the reward they had been promised. Demobilised into a crowded Nairobi, this pool of ex-soldiers became the backbone of the Forty Group. society / war ●●

October 1945 Joint secretary of the Fifth Pan-African Congress 0 cit. In October 1945 Kenyatta served as a joint secretary of the Fifth Pan-African Congress at Chorlton-on-Medlock Town Hall in Manchester, alongside Kwame Nkrumah, with George Padmore organising and W.E.B. Du Bois in the chair. Around ninety delegates from Africa, the Caribbean, and the diaspora attended. Three future presidents were in the room: Kenyatta, Nkrumah, and Hastings Banda. politics / society ●●●

October 1945 The congress commits Pan-Africanism to mass action and independence 0 cit. The 1945 congress broke with polite petitioning and demanded autonomy and independence for the African colonies, backed by the threat of mass action, strikes, and organised labour. It turned Pan-Africanism from a debating movement into a plan for decolonisation. The men who signed its resolutions went home to lead the independence movements of the next twenty years. politics ●●●

c. 1945 Kenya, the pamphlet before the return 0 cit. Around the end of the war Kenyatta wrote the short book Kenya: The Land of Conflict, a plain nationalist statement of the settler-versus-African struggle over land. It distilled fifteen years of argument into a call to organise. It marked his shift from scholar and delegate to political leader in waiting. economy / politics ●●

15 October 1945 Fifth Pan-African Congress opens in Manchester 0 cit. The Fifth Pan-African Congress met at Chorlton-on-Medlock Town Hall in Manchester over seven days in October 1945, weeks after the end of the Second World War. George Padmore and Kwame Nkrumah were its chief organizers, working through the Pan-African Federation. It gathered around ninety delegates and marked a turning point toward demands for full independence. politics / society ●●●

October 1945 Du Bois presides over the Manchester congress 0 cit. The delegates elected the veteran scholar W. E. B. Du Bois, then in his late seventies, as international president of the congress. Having chaired the earlier congresses, he served as an elder statesman and living link to the movement's beginnings. A younger generation of African and Caribbean activists now took over the practical leadership. politics / society ●●

October 1945 Kenyatta and Nkrumah serve as congress secretaries 0 cit. Jomo Kenyatta, then living in Britain and active in the Kikuyu Central Association, served as a joint secretary of the congress, as did Kwame Nkrumah. The organizing team also included Ras Makonnen, who ran the practical arrangements, and Peter Abrahams, who handled publicity. Amy Ashwood Garvey, the Jamaican activist and former wife of Marcus Garvey, co-chaired the opening session. politics / society ●●

October 1945 A working-class and trade-union base at Manchester 0 cit. Unlike the earlier gatherings of scholars and professionals, the Manchester congress drew heavily on trade unionists, workers, and student activists from Africa and the Caribbean. This broader base gave the meeting a more radical and grassroots character. Delegates connected colonial freedom to the struggles of ordinary workers. economy / politics / society ●●

October 1945 Manchester congress demands full independence 0 cit. The congress broke sharply with the reformism of earlier meetings and demanded autonomy and independence for Africa and the colonized world. It endorsed mass action, strikes, and boycotts as tools of struggle, and stated that colonized peoples might have to use force if peaceful means failed. This shift set the agenda for the postwar drive to decolonize. politics / society ●●●

October 1945 Nkrumah drafts the Declaration to the Colonial Peoples 0 cit. The congress issued a Declaration to the Colonial Peoples of the World, largely drafted by Kwame Nkrumah. It called on workers and farmers in the colonies to organize and to fight for their freedom, urging them that they had nothing to lose but their chains. The declaration turned the meeting's resolutions into a direct appeal for mass struggle. politics / society ●●

October 1945 Manchester delegates who became national leaders 0 cit. Several delegates went on to lead their nations: Kwame Nkrumah became the first leader of independent Ghana, Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya, and Hastings Banda of Malawi. Obafemi Awolowo, then a law student in London, was among the Nigerians present and later became a premier of Nigeria's Western Region. Because so many future leaders attended, many historians treat Manchester as a launch point for African independence, though others caution against giving one meeting too much credit for movements with deep local roots. politics / society ●●●

c. 1945 American supremacy is plain by war's end 0 cit. At the end of the Second World War the United States produced roughly half of the world's manufactured goods, held about two-thirds of the world's gold reserves, and accounted for around a third of world output. Its homeland was undamaged while the other great powers were exhausted or in ruins, a concentration of economic power without precedent in modern history. economy / technology / war ●●●

c. 1945 Mentors the young Kwame Nkrumah in London 0 cit. When Kwame Nkrumah arrived in London in 1945, Padmore took him under his wing and drew him into the Pan-African network. The older organizer schooled the future Ghanaian leader in politics, strategy, and the practical work of movement building. Their bond shaped the course of African independence. politics / society ●●●

October 1945 Organizes the Fifth Pan-African Congress at Manchester 0 cit. Padmore was the chief organizer of the Fifth Pan-African Congress, held in Manchester in October 1945, with Nkrumah serving as a joint secretary. Unlike earlier gatherings, it committed the movement to mass action and full independence. Many delegates, including Nkrumah and Jomo Kenyatta, went on to lead their countries to freedom. politics / society ●●●

May 1945 Nkrumah moves to London and works with George Padmore 0 cit. In 1945 Nkrumah moved to London, where he studied briefly and threw himself into anti-colonial organizing. He worked closely with the Trinidadian Pan-Africanist George Padmore, who became a mentor and ally. Together they built networks linking students, workers, and activists across the African diaspora. politics / society ●●

October 1945 Nkrumah serves as joint secretary of the Fifth Pan-African Congress 0 cit. Nkrumah served as a joint secretary, alongside George Padmore, of the Fifth Pan-African Congress held in Manchester in October 1945. The gathering brought together future leaders such as Jomo Kenyatta and called openly for an end to colonial rule. It marked a shift from petitioning empire to demanding independence and mass action. politics / society ●●●

c. 1945 Few Gates: Colonial Education and the Metropole 0 cit. Until the 1940s and 1950s the colonies had almost no universities of their own, so a colonized person seeking an elite or professional education had to go to the metropole, London above all, or to a few American colleges such as Lincoln University. This narrow funnel helps explain why so many independence leaders passed through the same handful of institutions and met at the same gatherings, like the 1945 Manchester congress: Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkrumah, and Hastings Banda among them. Historians read the concentration less as coincidence or a grooming plot than as the structural result of an empire that monopolized the gates to elite education. politics / society ●●

1945 A Black African doctor in the British Pan-African circle 0 cit. While living in Britain, Banda moves among the Nyasaland exiles and Pan-African activists gathered around figures like Kwame Nkrumah and Jomo Kenyatta. He is part of the milieu of the 1945 Manchester Pan-African Congress and helps host and fund visiting Africans at his home. These contacts keep him tied, at a distance, to the politics of his home protectorate. politics / society ●●

c. 1945 The Anglicized GP of Tyneside and London 0 cit. Banda practices for years as a general practitioner in Britain, in Liverpool during the war, then on Tyneside, and finally in the North London districts of Harlesden and Kilburn. He lives as a prosperous, church-going English doctor, dressing in dark three-piece suits and speaking the manner of the English middle class. By the time he returns home he has spent roughly forty years outside Africa. society ●●

c. 1945 The United States ends World War II with a global base network 0 cit. Fighting a two-ocean war leaves the United States with hundreds of installations across the Pacific, Europe, the Atlantic, and the Caribbean. Rather than fully demobilizing, Washington keeps many of these outposts and negotiates access to others. This wartime infrastructure becomes the seed of a permanent overseas military presence. politics / war ●●●

c. 1945 Okinawa carries the weight of the US presence in Japan 0 cit. The United States takes Okinawa in 1945 and administers it directly until 1972. The small island holds the bulk of US military facilities in Japan, including Kadena Air Base and Marine Corps installations. Local resentment over noise, accidents, crime, and land use makes Okinawa the sharpest flashpoint in the US-Japan alliance. politics / war ●●

26 December 1945 The CFA franc is created for France's African colonies 0 cit. France creates the franc of the French Colonies of Africa, the CFA franc, on the same day it ratifies the Bretton Woods accords. The new currency is set at a fixed rate to the French franc and issued under French control. It becomes the money used across most of French Africa and outlasts independence. economy / politics ●●●

2 September 1945 The US occupation of Japan begins 0 cit. After Japan's surrender, the United States occupied the country under General Douglas MacArthur as Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. The early occupation aimed to demilitarize Japan and break up the zaibatsu conglomerates. It also wrote a new pacifist constitution and pushed land reform and the rights of labor. politics / war ●●●

21 August 1945 Truman abruptly ends Lend-Lease 0 cit. Days after Japan's surrender, President Truman abruptly cancels Lend-Lease. The aid that had sustained Britain through the war stops almost overnight. Britain, exhausted and heavily in debt, is suddenly left to pay its own way with reserves it no longer has. economy / politics / war ●●●

6 December 1945 Keynes negotiates the Anglo-American Loan 0 cit. With Lend-Lease gone, John Maynard Keynes leads the British team seeking American help and returns with a loan rather than a gift. The Anglo-American Loan provides about 3.75 billion dollars at two percent interest. In return Britain agrees to make sterling freely convertible into dollars within a year, a condition that would soon prove dangerous. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●●

c. 1945 Financial primacy passes from London to Washington 0 cit. The sequence is documented fact: cash and carry, the forced sales, the drained reserves, Lend-Lease and its terms, Bretton Woods, and the 1945 loan together shifted the center of world finance from London to Washington. Some historians go further and argue the United States deliberately used the war to strip Britain of its assets and take its place as the leading power. Other historians counter that Britain was genuinely insolvent, and that the hard American terms reflected a suspicious Congress and ordinary self-interest rather than a single deliberate plan. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●●●

1945 An Archbishop of Canterbury in the craft 0 cit. Geoffrey Fisher, Archbishop of Canterbury from 1945, was a Freemason, one of several senior Anglicans in the lodges. The overlap of the church’s leadership and the craft was open rather than secret. ●●

1945 Moi trains as a teacher at Tambach 1 cit. After Kapsabet, Moi trained for teaching at Tambach Teachers Training College in Keiyo. Teacher training made him a colonial-era African professional: still subordinate to the colonial state, but positioned above most rural Africans in literacy, church standing, and administrative usefulness. politics / society ●●●

1945 Africans are admitted into cooperatives and controlled cash crops 2 cit. The 1945 Cooperative Societies Ordinance opened formal cooperative membership to indigenous Kenyans and allowed entry into cash crops such as coffee under official supervision. This was a controlled opening. The state did not simply hand farmers freedom; it built an inspected, registered channel through which African production could be financed, watched, graded and marketed. economy / politics / society ●●●●

c. 1946 Purge of the zaibatsu families ai_extracted 1 cit. Under the U.S. occupation the zaibatsu owners were forced to sell their stocks to the public, holding companies were banned entirely until 1998, and zaibatsu leaders were purged and prohibited from further business activity. ●●●●

1946 Ichimada appointed Bank of Japan governor ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1946, with the approval of the U.S. occupation, Hisato Ichimada, a Bank of Japan official trained in credit creation who had studied Schacht's Reichsbank in Berlin, was appointed BoJ governor. ●●●

August 1946 to 1952 Economic Stabilization Board established ai_extracted 1 cit. The wartime Cabinet Planning Board was revived as the powerful but short-lived Economic Stabilization Board, established in August 1946 and lasting until 1952, to direct postwar funding of the economy. ●●●

March 1946 Bank of Japan freezes loan balances ai_extracted 1 cit. The Bank of Japan's Banking Department instructed that banks could not in principle increase their outstanding loan balances beyond the level of 20 March 1946 without a permit from the Bank of Japan and the government, blocking low-priority claims on scarce resources. ●●

June 1946 Araki indicted by war crimes prosecutors and resigns ai_extracted 1 cit. In June 1946 BoJ governor Araki was indicted by war crimes prosecutors and had to resign, whereupon Hisato Ichimada took over as governor. ●●

June 1946 to December 1954 Ichimada rules the BoJ for eight and a half years ai_extracted 1 cit. Hisato Ichimada, known as 'the Pope,' controlled the economy as Bank of Japan governor from June 1946 to December 1954 through his decrees on who would receive money. ●●●

October 1946 to 1952 Temporary Materials Ordinance and Price Control Ordinance ai_extracted 1 cit. In October 1946 occupied Japan enforced the Temporary Materials Ordinance, and in the same year the Price Control Ordinance revived and strengthened the wartime price-fixing system through the new Price Agency; both were undone in 1952. ●●●

1946 Nationalization of the Bank of England ai_extracted 1 cit. The British Labour government nationalized the Bank of England in 1946, following the earlier nationalization of the German Reichsbank. ●●●

5 March 1946 UKUSA Agreement 0 cit. Secret British-American agreement to share signals intelligence, later extended to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand as the Five Eyes. Its existence was not officially acknowledged until decades later. diplomacy / politics / technology ●●●

18 April 1946 Dissolution of the League of Nations 0 cit. The final Assembly of the League of Nations votes to dissolve the organization, transferring its assets and remaining functions to the newly created United Nations. diplomacy / politics ●●●●

11 December 1946 Founding of UNICEF 0 cit. The UN General Assembly creates the International Children's Emergency Fund to help children in countries devastated by the Second World War. It became a permanent UN agency for children's welfare in 1953. diplomacy / society ●●●

25 May 1946 Independence of Jordan 0 cit. no story Transjordan becomes the independent Hashemite Kingdom under King Abdullah I, ending the British mandate. politics ●●●

17 April 1946 Independence of Syria 0 cit. no story The last French troops leave Syria, completing independence from the French mandate. politics ●●●

19 December 1946 to 1 August 1954 First Indochina War 0 cit. no story The Viet Minh fight France for Vietnamese independence, winning decisively at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. The Geneva Accords divide Vietnam at the 17th parallel, setting the stage for the Vietnam War. politics / war ●●●●

March 1946 to 16 October 1949 Greek Civil War 0 cit. no story Communist guerrillas fight the Western-backed Greek government in the Cold War's first armed confrontation. The government wins with American aid under the Truman Doctrine. politics / war ●●●

7 May 1946 Founding of Sony 0 cit. Masaru Ibuka and Akio Morita found Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo in bombed-out Tokyo, renamed Sony in 1958. Transistor radios, the Trinitron, the Walkman, and the PlayStation make it a symbol of Japan's postwar rise. culture / economy / technology ●●●●

11 June 1946 Administrative Procedure Act 0 cit. Congress writes the rulebook for the administrative state, requiring agencies to give public notice of proposed rules, take comment, and face judicial review. It remains the constitution of federal regulation. politics ●●●

1 July 1946 Founding of the CDC 0 cit. The Communicable Disease Center opens in Atlanta as the successor to the wartime malaria control program, with a first mission of stamping out malaria in the South. It grows into the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the national public health agency. science / society ●●●

1 August 1946 Atomic Energy Commission and the National Laboratories 0 cit. The Atomic Energy Act moves nuclear weapons and research from the Army to a civilian Atomic Energy Commission. Argonne is chartered as the first national laboratory the same year, beginning the network that includes Los Alamos, Oak Ridge, and Lawrence Berkeley. science / technology ●●●

1 July 1946 Operation Crossroads at Bikini Atoll 0 cit. The United States begins postwar nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll after relocating its inhabitants. The islanders never return permanently, opening a long legacy of displacement and contamination in the Marshall Islands. environment / war ●●

26 December 1946 Founding of the Italian Social Movement 0 cit. Veterans of Mussolini's Social Republic found the Italian Social Movement, the main neo-fascist party of postwar Europe. Its successors later move into Italy's political mainstream. politics ●●

22 July 1946 King David Hotel bombing 0 cit. The Zionist paramilitary group Irgun bombed the King David Hotel, which housed the British Mandate administration, killing 91 people. politics / war ●●●

9 December 1946 to 1947 Nuremberg Doctors' Trial exposes medical crimes 1 cit. Allied courts tried Nazi doctors for murder and torture carried out in the name of racial hygiene. The trial produced the Nuremberg Code on medical ethics and helped discredit eugenics worldwide. politics / science ●●●

5 March 1946 Churchill's Iron Curtain speech names the special relationship 0 cit. Speaking in Missouri with President Truman present, Churchill called for a special relationship between the United States and the British Commonwealth against Soviet expansion. The phrase came to describe the close, if unequal, postwar Anglo-American partnership. politics / war ●●