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239 event(s), page 1 of 3, 100 uncited and 100 outside stories on this page

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  1. 499 BCE to 449 BCE Greco-Persian Wars 0 cit. no story The Achaemenid Persian Empire twice invades Greece and is repelled by an alliance of Greek city-states at Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea. The Greek victory preserves the independent city-state world that produced classical civilization. war ●●●●●
  2. 431 BCE to 404 BCE Peloponnesian War 0 cit. no story Athens and Sparta fight a three-decade struggle for supremacy in Greece. Athens' defeat ends its golden age and exhausts the Greek world. war ●●●●
  3. 395 BCE to 387 BCE Corinthian War 0 cit. no story Sparta fights a coalition of Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos backed by Persia. The war ends with the King's Peace, which leaves Sparta dominant but under Persian oversight. war ●●
  4. 343 BCE to 290 BCE Samnite Wars 0 cit. no story Rome fights three wars against the Samnites and their allies for control of central Italy. Victory makes Rome the dominant power of the Italian peninsula. war ●●
  5. 336 BCE to 323 BCE Wars of Alexander the Great 0 cit. no story Alexander of Macedon conquers the Persian Empire and campaigns as far as Egypt and India in eleven years. His conquests spread Greek culture across the Near East and open the Hellenistic age. war ●●●●●
  6. c. 322 BCE to c. 281 BCE Wars of the Diadochi 0 cit. no story Alexander's generals fight over his empire for four decades after his death. The wars carve the Hellenistic world into the Ptolemaic, Seleucid, and Antigonid kingdoms. politics / war ●●●
  7. 280 BCE to 275 BCE Pyrrhic War 0 cit. no story King Pyrrhus of Epirus wins costly battles against Rome on behalf of the Greek cities of southern Italy but cannot sustain the war. His withdrawal leaves Rome master of Italy and gives the language the term Pyrrhic victory. war ●●
  8. c. 262 BCE to c. 261 BCE Kalinga War 0 cit. no story The Mauryan emperor Ashoka conquers Kalinga at enormous human cost. Remorse over the slaughter leads him to embrace Buddhism and promote its spread across Asia. religion / war ●●●
  9. 230 BCE to 221 BCE Qin's Wars of Unification 0 cit. no story The state of Qin conquers the six rival Warring States in under a decade. The victory creates the first unified Chinese empire under Qin Shi Huang. politics / war ●●●●●
  10. 218 BCE to 201 BCE Second Punic War 0 cit. no story Hannibal crosses the Alps and devastates Roman armies at Cannae, but Rome outlasts Carthage and wins at Zama. The victory makes Rome the leading power of the western Mediterranean. war ●●●●●
  11. 206 BCE to 202 BCE Chu-Han Contention 0 cit. no story After the fall of the Qin dynasty, Liu Bang of Han defeats Xiang Yu of Chu in a civil war for control of China. The outcome founds the Han dynasty, which rules for four centuries. politics / war ●●●
  12. 149 BCE to 146 BCE Third Punic War 0 cit. no story Rome besieges and destroys Carthage, killing or enslaving its population. The city's territory becomes the Roman province of Africa. war ●●●
  13. c. 133 BCE to c. 89 Han-Xiongnu Wars 0 cit. no story Han China fights a two-century intermittent war against the Xiongnu nomad confederation on its northern frontier. Han victories open the Silk Road and break Xiongnu power in the steppe. war ●●●
  14. 113 BCE to 101 BCE Cimbrian War 0 cit. no story The migrating Cimbri and Teutones crush several Roman armies before Gaius Marius destroys them. The emergency drives Marius' army reforms, which reshape Roman politics. war ●●
  15. 112 BCE to 106 BCE Jugurthine War 0 cit. no story Rome fights King Jugurtha of Numidia in a war marked by bribery scandals at home. The conflict launches the careers of Marius and Sulla. war ●●
  16. 91 BCE to 87 BCE Social War 0 cit. no story Rome's Italian allies revolt after being denied citizenship. Rome wins the war but concedes citizenship to most Italians, transforming the Roman state. politics / war ●●
  17. 88 BCE to 63 BCE Mithridatic Wars 0 cit. no story Rome fights three wars against Mithridates VI of Pontus, who massacres Roman settlers and overruns Roman Asia. Pompey's final victory brings most of Anatolia and the Levant under Roman control. war ●●●
  18. 73 BCE to 71 BCE Third Servile War 0 cit. no story The gladiator Spartacus leads a slave revolt that defeats several Roman armies before Crassus crushes it. Thousands of captured rebels are crucified along the Appian Way. society / war ●●
  19. 58 BCE to 50 BCE Gallic Wars 0 cit. no story Julius Caesar conquers Gaul in eight years of campaigning, defeating the great revolt of Vercingetorix at Alesia. The conquest kills or enslaves millions and brings Gaul permanently into the Roman world. war ●●●●
  20. c. 54 BCE to c. 628 Roman-Persian Wars 0 cit. no story Rome and then Byzantium fight Parthian and Sasanian Persia in a nearly seven-century series of frontier wars. The long rivalry exhausts both empires on the eve of the Arab conquests. war ●●●●
  21. 49 BCE to 45 BCE Caesar's Civil War 0 cit. no story Caesar crosses the Rubicon and defeats Pompey and the Senate's forces across Greece, Egypt, Africa, and Spain. His victory ends the Roman Republic in all but name. politics / war ●●●●
  22. 32 BCE to 30 BCE Final War of the Roman Republic 0 cit. no story Octavian defeats Antony and Cleopatra at the naval battle of Actium and annexes Egypt. The victory makes him Rome's first emperor as Augustus. politics / war ●●●●
  23. c. 43 to c. 84 Roman Conquest of Britain 0 cit. no story Rome invades Britain under Claudius and subdues most of the island over four decades, crushing Boudica's revolt along the way. Britain remains a Roman province for over 350 years. war ●●●
  24. c. 220 to c. 280 Wars of the Three Kingdoms Period 0 cit. no story The rival states of Wei, Shu, and Wu fight for control of China after the fall of the Han dynasty. The era's wars and famines cause one of history's largest population collapses before Jin reunifies the country. politics / war ●●●●
  25. 376 to 382 Gothic War of 376-382 0 cit. no story Goths fleeing the Huns revolt inside the Roman Empire and destroy an imperial army at Adrianople, killing Emperor Valens. The settlement that follows plants armed Gothic peoples permanently inside Roman territory. war ●●●
  26. c. 434 to c. 453 Hunnic Wars of Attila 0 cit. no story Attila's Huns ravage the Balkans, Gaul, and Italy, extracting tribute from both Roman empires. His empire collapses after his death, but the invasions accelerate the fall of the Roman West. war ●●●●
  27. 535 to 554 Gothic War of 535-554 0 cit. no story Emperor Justinian's generals reconquer Italy from the Ostrogoths in a two-decade war. The fighting devastates Italy and leaves it open to Lombard invasion. war ●●●
  28. 602 to 628 Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628 0 cit. no story The last and greatest Roman-Persian war sees Persia overrun Egypt and the Levant before Heraclius strikes back into the Persian heartland. Both empires emerge exhausted just before the Arab conquests. war ●●●●
  29. c. 622 to c. 750 Early Muslim Conquests 0 cit. no story Arab armies united by Islam conquer the Sasanian Empire and strip Byzantium of Syria, Egypt, and North Africa, reaching Spain and Central Asia within a century. The conquests permanently reshape the religious and political map of the Old World. religion / war ●●●●●
  30. c. 718 to c. 1492 Reconquista 0 cit. no story Christian kingdoms gradually reconquer Muslim-ruled Iberia over nearly eight centuries, ending with the fall of Granada in 1492. The struggle forges the kingdoms of Spain and Portugal. religion / war ●●●●
  31. 772 to 804 Saxon Wars 0 cit. no story Charlemagne fights a three-decade campaign to conquer and forcibly Christianize the Saxons. The wars extend Frankish power across Germany. religion / war ●●●
  32. c. 793 to c. 1066 Viking Invasions of Europe 0 cit. no story Scandinavian raiders and armies attack and settle across the British Isles, Francia, and beyond for nearly three centuries. The Viking age founds new states from Normandy to the Danelaw and Kievan Rus. exploration / war ●●●●
  33. 874 to 884 Huang Chao Rebellion 0 cit. no story A huge rebel army under Huang Chao sacks both Tang capitals and massacres the merchant city of Guangzhou. The devastation fatally weakens the Tang dynasty. society / war ●●●
  34. c. 1048 to c. 1308 Byzantine-Seljuk Wars 0 cit. no story Seljuk Turks defeat Byzantium at Manzikert in 1071 and settle Anatolia, which gradually turns Turkish and Muslim. The Byzantine appeal for help against them triggers the Crusades. war ●●●
  35. September 1066 to 1071 Norman Conquest of England 0 cit. no story William of Normandy defeats King Harold at Hastings and subdues England over the following years. The conquest replaces the English ruling class and ties England to continental Europe. politics / war ●●●●
  36. August 1096 to July 1099 First Crusade 0 cit. no story Western European armies answer the papal call to take Jerusalem, capturing it in 1099 amid great slaughter. The victory founds the Crusader states and opens two centuries of holy war in the Levant. religion / war ●●●●
  37. c. 1125 to c. 1234 Jin-Song Wars 0 cit. no story The Jurchen Jin dynasty conquers northern China from the Song, who hold the south for another century. The long division ends only when the Mongols destroy the Jin. war ●●●
  38. 1147 to 1150 Second Crusade 0 cit. no story Launched after the fall of Edessa, the crusade of the French and German kings fails disastrously outside Damascus. The failure emboldens Muslim reunification under Nur ad-Din. religion / war ●●●
  39. c. 1147 to c. 1290 Northern Crusades 0 cit. no story German and Scandinavian crusaders conquer and Christianize the pagan peoples of the Baltic. The campaigns create the Teutonic Order's state in Prussia and Livonia. religion / war ●●●
  40. 1180 to April 1185 Genpei War 0 cit. no story The Minamoto and Taira clans fight a civil war that ends with the Taira destroyed at the naval battle of Dan-no-ura. The victory establishes the Kamakura shogunate and seven centuries of samurai rule. politics / war ●●●
  41. 1189 to September 1192 Third Crusade 0 cit. no story Richard the Lionheart, Philip of France, and Frederick Barbarossa march against Saladin after his capture of Jerusalem. The crusade retakes the coast but not Jerusalem, ending in a negotiated truce. religion / war ●●●●
  42. 1202 to April 1204 Fourth Crusade 0 cit. no story A crusade bound for Egypt is diverted and sacks Christian Constantinople in 1204. The blow permanently weakens Byzantium and deepens the split between the Latin and Greek churches. religion / war ●●●●
  43. c. 1206 to c. 1368 Mongol Invasions and Conquests 0 cit. no story Genghis Khan and his successors conquer the largest contiguous land empire in history, from China to Eastern Europe. The conquests kill tens of millions and reconnect the Eurasian trade routes. war ●●●●●
  44. 1209 to 1229 Albigensian Crusade 0 cit. no story A crusade against the Cathar heresy devastates Languedoc over twenty years. It destroys Cathar society and brings southern France under the French crown. religion / war ●●●
  45. c. 1265 to c. May 1453 Byzantine-Ottoman Wars 0 cit. no story The rising Ottoman state gradually absorbs Byzantine territory over two centuries, ending with the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The conquest ends the Roman imperial line and establishes Ottoman power in Europe. war ●●●●
  46. November 1274 to August 1281 Mongol Invasions of Japan 0 cit. no story Kublai Khan twice sends invasion fleets against Japan, and both are wrecked by storms the Japanese call kamikaze. The failures mark the limit of Mongol expansion in the east. war ●●●
  47. March 1282 to 1302 War of the Sicilian Vespers 0 cit. no story A Sicilian uprising against Angevin French rule draws Aragon into a twenty-year Mediterranean war. The peace splits the old Kingdom of Sicily between Naples and Aragonese Sicily. politics / war ●●
  48. 1296 to 1357 Scottish Wars of Independence 0 cit. no story Scotland fights off English attempts at conquest in two long wars, with Robert the Bruce's victory at Bannockburn the turning point. Scotland preserves its independence for another three and a half centuries. politics / war ●●●
  49. May 1337 to October 1453 Hundred Years' War 0 cit. no story England and France fight a dynastic war lasting over a century, spanning Crecy, Agincourt, and Joan of Arc. France finally expels the English and both kingdoms emerge as stronger centralized states. politics / war ●●●●●
  50. 1351 to 1368 Red Turban Rebellion 0 cit. no story Popular revolts against Mongol Yuan rule spread across China until rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang takes Beijing. The victory founds the Ming dynasty. politics / war ●●●
  51. 1370 to 1405 Conquests of Timur 0 cit. no story Timur builds an empire from Delhi to Damascus through campaigns of extraordinary brutality, killing millions. His victories break the Ottoman sultan and the Golden Horde but his empire fragments after his death. war ●●●●
  52. 1419 to 1434 Hussite Wars 0 cit. no story Followers of the executed reformer Jan Hus defeat five crusades sent against Bohemia, pioneering war-wagon tactics and handheld firearms. The wars foreshadow the Reformation a century later. religion / war ●●●
  53. 1454 to 1466 Thirteen Years' War 0 cit. no story Poland and the rebellious Prussian cities defeat the Teutonic Order in a thirteen-year war. The peace gives Poland access to the Baltic and reduces the Order to a Polish vassal. war ●●
  54. 1467 to 1477 Onin War 0 cit. no story A succession dispute among Japan's great lords destroys Kyoto and shatters central authority. The war opens the century-long Sengoku era of warring states. politics / war ●●●
  55. 1494 to 1559 Italian Wars 0 cit. no story France and Habsburg Spain fight a series of wars for dominance in Italy over six decades. Spain emerges as the leading power in Italy and Europe. politics / war ●●●●
  56. c. 1519 to c. 1530 Mughal Conquests of Babur 0 cit. no story Babur invades India from Kabul and destroys the Delhi Sultanate's army at Panipat in 1526. His victories found the Mughal Empire, which dominates India for two centuries. war ●●●●
  57. 6 June 1523 Independence of Sweden 0 cit. no story Gustav Vasa is elected King of Sweden, ending the Kalmar Union with Denmark and founding the modern Swedish state. politics / war ●●●
  58. 1524 to 1525 German Peasants' War 0 cit. no story Hundreds of thousands of peasants revolt across Germany, inspired partly by Reformation ideas. The princes crush the rising, killing perhaps 100,000, in Europe's largest popular revolt before the French Revolution. religion / society / war ●●●
  59. c. 1526 to c. 1791 Ottoman-Habsburg Wars 0 cit. no story The Ottoman Empire and Habsburg Austria contest Hungary and the Balkans in wars spanning nearly three centuries, including two sieges of Vienna. The long struggle fixes the frontier between Christian and Ottoman Europe. war ●●●●
  60. 1529 to 1543 Ethiopian-Adal War 0 cit. no story The Muslim Adal Sultanate under Ahmad Gran nearly conquers Christian Ethiopia before Portuguese aid helps turn the tide. The devastating war permanently weakens both sides ahead of the Oromo migrations. religion / war ●●●
  61. 1568 to 1648 Eighty Years' War 0 cit. no story The Dutch provinces revolt against Spanish rule in a war lasting eight decades. The Peace of Westphalia recognizes the independent Dutch Republic, by then a leading commercial power. politics / religion / war ●●●●
  62. 26 July 1581 Independence of the Netherlands 0 cit. no story The Act of Abjuration renounces Philip II of Spain during the Dutch Revolt, founding the independent Dutch Republic. politics / war ●●●●
  63. 1585 to 1604 Anglo-Spanish War of 1585-1604 0 cit. no story England and Spain fight an undeclared naval war highlighted by the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. The war establishes England as a serious maritime power. war ●●●
  64. May 1592 to December 1598 Japanese Invasions of Korea 0 cit. no story Toyotomi Hideyoshi twice invades Korea with armies of over 150,000, but Korean naval victories under Yi Sun-sin and Ming Chinese intervention force a withdrawal. The war devastates Korea and drains all three combatants. war ●●●●
  65. 1605 to 1618 Polish-Russian War of 1605-1618 0 cit. no story Poland-Lithuania intervenes in Russia's Time of Troubles, occupying Moscow and backing pretenders to the throne. A Russian national rising expels the Poles and the Romanov dynasty takes power. politics / war ●●●
  66. c. 1609 to c. 1701 Beaver Wars 0 cit. no story The Iroquois Confederacy, armed by Dutch and English traders, fights France and its native allies for control of the fur trade. The wars depopulate large parts of the Great Lakes region. economy / war ●●
  67. May 1618 to October 1648 Thirty Years' War 0 cit. no story A revolt in Bohemia grows into a general European war fought largely on German soil, killing millions through battle, famine, and plague. The Peace of Westphalia reshapes Europe around sovereign states. politics / religion / war ●●●●●
  68. 1618 to 1683 Manchu Conquest of China 0 cit. no story The Manchus overthrow the Ming dynasty and subdue all of China in a 65-year war that kills an estimated 25 million people. The conquest establishes the Qing dynasty, China's last imperial house. politics / war ●●●●●
  69. May 1635 to November 1659 Franco-Spanish War of 1635-1659 0 cit. no story France fights Habsburg Spain in a war that outlasts the Thirty Years' War by a decade. The Peace of the Pyrenees marks the passing of European dominance from Spain to France. war ●●●
  70. 1645 to September 1669 Cretan War 0 cit. no story The Ottomans wrest Crete from Venice in a war centered on the 21-year siege of Candia, one of the longest in history. The loss ends Venice's era as a major Mediterranean power. war ●●
  71. 1652 to 1674 Anglo-Dutch Wars 0 cit. no story England and the Dutch Republic fight three naval wars over trade and sea power. The wars spur the rise of the Royal Navy and hand New Amsterdam to England as New York. economy / war ●●●
  72. July 1655 to May 1660 Second Northern War 0 cit. no story Sweden invades Poland-Lithuania in the devastating occupation Poles call the Deluge, drawing in Russia, Denmark, and Brandenburg. Poland survives but loses perhaps a third of its population. war ●●●
  73. April 1672 to 1678 Franco-Dutch War 0 cit. no story Louis XIV invades the Dutch Republic, which survives by opening its dikes and building a European coalition. The war establishes France as the dominant continental power. war ●●●
  74. June 1675 to 1678 King Philip's War 0 cit. no story Wampanoag leader Metacom leads a native coalition against the New England colonies in proportionally one of America's deadliest wars. The colonists' victory breaks native power in southern New England. war ●●
  75. 1680 to 1707 Mughal-Maratha Wars 0 cit. no story Emperor Aurangzeb spends 27 years trying to crush the Maratha state in the Deccan, at the cost of millions of lives. The unwinnable war exhausts the Mughal Empire and opens its decline. war ●●●●
  76. c. 1687 to c. 1757 Dzungar-Qing Wars 0 cit. no story Qing China fights the Dzungar Mongol khanate for seventy years, ending with the destruction of the Dzungar people. The victory brings Xinjiang, Mongolia, and Tibet under Qing control. war ●●●
  77. March 1689 to October 1691 Williamite War in Ireland 0 cit. no story The deposed James II fights William of Orange for the British thrones on Irish soil, losing at the Boyne and Aughrim. The Protestant victory shapes Irish politics for centuries. politics / religion / war ●●
  78. July 1701 to September 1714 War of the Spanish Succession 0 cit. no story Europe's powers fight over whether a Bourbon may inherit the Spanish throne, with Marlborough's victories checking France. The peace lets Philip V keep Spain but bars union with France and makes Britain a leading power. politics / war ●●●●
  79. c. 1730 to c. June 1747 Campaigns of Nader Shah 0 cit. no story Nader Shah rebuilds Persian power, defeats the Ottomans, and sacks Delhi in 1739, carrying off the Peacock Throne. His assassination in 1747 collapses his empire but leaves Mughal India fatally weakened. war ●●●
  80. October 1733 to October 1735 War of the Polish Succession 0 cit. no story France and its allies fight Austria and Russia over the disputed Polish throne. The fighting settles little in Poland but redraws dynastic holdings in Italy. politics / war ●●
  81. December 1740 to October 1748 War of the Austrian Succession 0 cit. no story Prussia's seizure of Silesia from Maria Theresa triggers a general European war fought from India to North America. Prussia keeps Silesia and emerges as a great power. politics / war ●●●
  82. 1746 to 1763 Carnatic Wars 0 cit. no story Britain and France fight through Indian proxies for influence in the Carnatic. British victory drives France from serious contention in India and opens the way for Company rule. politics / war ●●●
  83. May 1756 to February 1763 Seven Years' War 0 cit. no story Often called the first world war, the conflict pits Britain and Prussia against France, Austria, and Russia across four continents. Britain wins Canada and India, while Prussia survives to confirm its great-power status. politics / war ●●●●●
  84. May 1763 to July 1766 Pontiac's War 0 cit. no story Native nations led by the Odawa chief Pontiac rise against British rule after the French defeat. The war prompts the Royal Proclamation of 1763 limiting colonial settlement, a grievance on the road to American revolution. war ●●
  85. 1767 to May 1799 Anglo-Mysore Wars 0 cit. no story The Kingdom of Mysore under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan fights four wars against the British East India Company. Tipu's death at Seringapatam in 1799 removes the last major obstacle to British dominance in southern India. war ●●●
  86. c. 25 September 1768 Unification of Nepal 0 cit. no story Prithvi Narayan Shah conquers Kathmandu, unifying the hill kingdoms into the modern state of Nepal, which was never colonized. politics / war ●●●
  87. 1771 to 1802 Tay Son Wars 0 cit. no story The Tay Son brothers overthrow Vietnam's ruling families and repel a Chinese invasion before falling to Nguyen Anh. The three decades of war end with Vietnam unified under the Nguyen dynasty. politics / war ●●●
  88. 19 April 1775 to 3 September 1783 American Revolutionary War 0 cit. no story Thirteen British colonies fight for and win independence with French help, sealed at Yorktown in 1781. The war creates the United States and inspires revolutionary movements worldwide. politics / war ●●●●●
  89. 4 July 1776 Independence of the United States 0 cit. no story The thirteen American colonies adopt the Declaration of Independence, breaking from Britain and founding the United States. politics / war ●●●●●
  90. c. 1776 to c. 1924 American Indian Wars 0 cit. no story The United States fights a long series of wars and campaigns against Native American nations as settlement pushes west. The conflicts, together with disease and forced removal, destroy native independence across the continent. war ●●●
  91. 20 April 1792 to March 1802 French Revolutionary Wars 0 cit. no story Revolutionary France fights two coalitions of European monarchies, surviving through mass conscription and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. The wars export revolutionary ideas and redraw the map of Europe. politics / war ●●●●●
  92. May 1801 to June 1805 First Barbary War 0 cit. no story The young United States fights Tripoli over tribute demanded by the Barbary states from American shipping. It is the first overseas war fought by the United States. war ●●
  93. 18 May 1803 to 20 November 1815 Napoleonic Wars 0 cit. no story Napoleon's France fights successive coalitions of European powers, dominating the continent for a decade before defeat in Russia, at Leipzig, and finally at Waterloo. The wars kill millions and reshape the political map of Europe. politics / war ●●●●●
  94. 20 July 1810 Independence of Colombia 0 cit. no story A revolt in Bogota begins Colombia's independence from Spain, secured by Bolivar's victory at Boyaca in 1819. politics / war ●●●
  95. 5 July 1811 Independence of Venezuela 0 cit. no story Venezuela declares independence from Spain, the first South American colony to do so; the war continued until Carabobo in 1821. politics / war ●●●
  96. 18 June 1812 to 17 February 1815 War of 1812 0 cit. no story The United States and Britain fight over maritime rights and expansion, with Washington burned and New Orleans defended. The war ends in stalemate but strengthens American national identity. war ●●●
  97. c. 1815 to c. 1840 Mfecane 0 cit. no story The rise of the Zulu kingdom under Shaka sets off a chain of wars and mass migrations across southern Africa. The upheaval scatters and reforms peoples across the region, with a death toll in the hundreds of thousands or more. society / war ●●●
  98. 9 July 1816 Independence of Argentina 0 cit. no story The Congress of Tucuman declares the independence of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata from Spain. politics / war ●●●●
  99. 1817 to May 1864 Caucasian War 0 cit. no story Russia spends nearly half a century subduing the mountain peoples of the Caucasus, including Imam Shamil's long resistance. The conquest ends with the mass expulsion of the Circassians. war ●●●
  100. 12 February 1818 Independence of Chile 0 cit. no story Bernardo O'Higgins proclaims Chile's independence from Spain, secured by victory at the Battle of Maipu. politics / war ●●●