The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy

Adam Tooze

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Perhaps most of all, the turn against socio-economic analysis has been motivated by a sense of ennui pp. 20-25
Perhaps most of all, the turn against socio-economic analysis has been motivated by a sense of ennui, the impression that there is simply no…
How did the fissures in the global power structure created by the great depression of 1929-32 enable pp. 20-25
How did the fissures in the global power structure created by the great depression of 1929-32 enable Hitler’s government to have such a dram…
Allied empires outproduce Axis in GDP by 60% pp. 26-29
In 1939, as the war started, the combined GDP of the British and French empires exceeded that of Germany and Italy by 60 per cent.
Though Hitler scored brilliant short-term successes in 1936 and 1938, the diplomacy of the Third Rei pp. 26-29
Though Hitler scored brilliant short-term successes in 1936 and 1938, the diplomacy of the Third Reich failed to bring about the anti-Soviet…
It was ideology which provided Hitler with the lens through which he understood the inter- national pp. 26-29
It was ideology which provided Hitler with the lens through which he understood the inter- national balance of power and the unfolding of th…
I provide a new account of the dynamic that launched Germany into war and explain both how this sust pp. 30-31
I provide a new account of the dynamic that launched Germany into war and explain both how this sustained a successful war effort up to 1941…
As the only one of seven siblings to attend university he had completed his studies with a dissertat pp. 33-36
As the only one of seven siblings to attend university he had completed his studies with a dissertation in historical economics and started…
Dawes Committee convenes in Paris on reparations pp. 37-40
Stresemann’s first success was the Dawes Committee, which met in Paris in 1924 to establish a workable system through which Germany could pa…
In 1928, rather than the Germans it was the Americans and most notably the chairman of the US Federa pp. 37-40
In 1928, rather than the Germans it was the Americans and most notably the chairman of the US Federal Reserve, Benjamin Strong, who began to…
Germany would again face the constellation of August 1914 — an overpowering Continental alliance mas pp. 37-40
Germany would again face the constellation of August 1914 — an overpowering Continental alliance masterminded and bankrolled by the Jewish b…
In 1928, therefore, despite the presence of elements such as Hitler and his party, the Weimar Republ pp. 45-48
In 1928, therefore, despite the presence of elements such as Hitler and his party, the Weimar Republic had a functioning parliamentary syste…
American lending to Germany begins to fall pp. 45-48
From 1928 onwards long-term American lending to Germany began tofall, as rumours swirled about the future of reparations and interest rates…
By the’spring of 1930 he had resigned and thrown in his lot with the forces now gathering on the ext pp. 45-48
By the’spring of 1930 he had resigned and thrown in his lot with the forces now gathering on the extreme right of German politics, who were…
Remarkably, in early 1931 Briand renewed his approach to Germany, suggesting that to assist Bruening pp. 49-52
Remarkably, in early 1931 Briand renewed his approach to Germany, suggesting that to assist Bruening in complying with the Young Plan, the P…
Washington links reparations to Allied war debts pp. 49-52
Most critically of all, on 20 June 1931, in response to the talk of an imminent debt moratorium, Washington finally conceded the linkage bet…
Bruening later claimed to have hoped to carry out a 20 per cent devaluation once the acute crisis ha pp. 53-56
Bruening later claimed to have hoped to carry out a 20 per cent devaluation once the acute crisis had passed and Germany had obtained suffic…
Fourth emergency decree slashes German wages and prices pp. 53-56
The fourth Presidential emergency decree of 8 December 1931, apart from banning the wearing of party uniforms and political demonstrations,…
Over the winter of 1931- 2, bankruptcies began to eat away at the fabric of German business. pp. 53-56
Over the winter of 1931- 2, bankruptcies began to eat away at the fabric of German business.
In early 1932 the Americans thus launched twin conference ‘processes’, in Geneva for disarmament and pp. 57-60
In early 1932 the Americans thus launched twin conference ‘processes’, in Geneva for disarmament and in Lausanne for political debts.
By contrast, from 1932 the governments of Franz von Papen, General Kurt von Schleicher and finally A pp. 57-60
By contrast, from 1932 the governments of Franz von Papen, General Kurt von Schleicher and finally Adolf Hitler adopted a contrary position.
Reichswehr plans secret rearmament and Treaty breach pp. 57-60
In the second half of 1932 the Reichswehr leadership began planning for an outright Treaty breach through a significant increase in peacetim…
Papen though he approved quotas in principle, did so only within the limits ‘permissible according t pp. 61-64
Papen though he approved quotas in principle, did so only within the limits ‘permissible according to current trade treaties’ and when Papen…
After all, Germany ended 1932 with generals both as Chancellor and as President of the Republic. pp. 61-64
After all, Germany ended 1932 with generals both as Chancellor and as President of the Republic.
Meanwhile, the first hints of an economic recovery had made their appearance in America in June 1932 pp. 61-64
Meanwhile, the first hints of an economic recovery had made their appearance in America in June 1932.'” After the lifting of reparations at…
Hitler gives first national radio address as Chancellor pp. 69-72
ya ‘Every Worker his Work’ On 1 February 1933, two days after his appointment as Chancellor, sweating with anticipation, Hitler recorded the…
In stark contrast to the reluctant revolutionaries of November 1918, who had done their best to supp pp. 69-72
In stark contrast to the reluctant revolutionaries of November 1918, who had done their best to suppress the popular uprising against World…
Furthermore, his appointment in March 1933 may well have been conditional on his prior agreement to pp. 73-76
Furthermore, his appointment in March 1933 may well have been conditional on his prior agreement to substantial spending on work creation.
In 1933, given that there were 6 million un- employed and most of German industry was running at les pp. 73-76
In 1933, given that there were 6 million un- employed and most of German industry was running at less than 50 per cent capacity, this was no…
The initial experiment in credit-financed work creation was launched not by Hitler’s government, but pp. 73-76
The initial experiment in credit-financed work creation was launched not by Hitler’s government, but by General Schleicher in December 1932.…
Todt appointed inspector general for German roads pp. 77-81
In the last days of June 1933, z 46 “EVERY WORKER HIS WORK’ Todt was appointed as general inspector for German roads, with auth- ority over…
As Hitler declared to representatives of industry in late September 1933, it was vital to avoid a se pp. 77-81
As Hitler declared to representatives of industry in late September 1933, it was vital to avoid a second psychological setback.
By 1936, the Northeim tourist g 48 “EVERY WORKER HIS WORK’ office was attracting 60,000 visitors an pp. 77-81
By 1936, the Northeim tourist g 48 “EVERY WORKER HIS WORK’ office was attracting 60,000 visitors annually and the Thingstaette had establish…
By 1933 the German trade balance began shifting inexor- ably into deficit and the Reichsbank’s limit pp. 82-85
By 1933 the German trade balance began shifting inexor- ably into deficit and the Reichsbank’s limited foreign exchange holdings drained rap…
Cabinet grants Schacht power to declare debt moratorium pp. 82-85
In April 1933 the cabinet gave Schacht carte blanche to instigate a moratorium on Germany’s international debts, at a moment of his choosing…
Schacht convenes German creditors conference in Berlin pp. 82-85
At the end of May 1933 Schacht convoked a §i THE WAGES OF DESTRUCTION conference of Germany’s creditors in Berlin where he sought to persuad…
Mefo bills first issued to finance rearmament pp. 86-89
Small numbers of Mefo $ 54 “EVERY WORKER HIS WORK’ bills were issued in the autumn of 1933 to tide the early Luftwaffe contractors over a ca…
Rearmament budget set to triple civilian job spending pp. 86-89
According to the agreement of June 1933, military spending was to be almost three times larger than the combined total of all of the civilia…
Britain launches new disarmament proposals pp. 86-89
The opportunity presented itself in October 1933 when the British launched a new round of disarmament proposals.
In 1934, he had spearheaded the Joint’s... (1934) pp. 90-93
However, spending had to start immediately and from the second half of 1934 onwards large orders began to be placed with the dockyards of no…
The day ended with public speeches and a rally that joined together those who had been found work si pp. 90-93
The day ended with public speeches and a rally that joined together those who had been found work since 1933 and those still waiting for emp…
Goebbels and Goering re- garded Berlin as their personal fiefdom.’' Hamburg lived up to its repu- ta pp. 90-93
Goebbels and Goering re- garded Berlin as their personal fiefdom.’' Hamburg lived up to its repu- tation as a dangerous centre of revolution…
This is hardly surprising, when we bear in mind that the real wages of many workers fell quite sharp pp. 94-99
This is hardly surprising, when we bear in mind that the real wages of many workers fell quite sharply in 1933, as wages stagnated and price…
In 1934, he had spearheaded the Joint’s... (1934) pp. 94-99
Hitler had made his own position clear in February 1934, by imposing an ‘agreement’ limiting the activities of the brown- shirts.?
Schacht suspends all German foreign debt payments pp. 100-104
The economic crisis came to a head right on cue.’* On 14 June 1934 Schacht declared a complete suspension of foreign currency payments on al…
Pressure on the balance of trade: monthly imports and exports (million Reichsmarks) discussions betw pp. 105-109
Pressure on the balance of trade: monthly imports and exports (million Reichsmarks) discussions between the Reichsbank and a number of Germa…
Once the initial violence of the seizure of power had passed, Jewish emigration dwindled to only 23, pp. 105-109
Once the initial violence of the seizure of power had passed, Jewish emigration dwindled to only 23,000 in 1934 and 21,000 in 1935.
However, by the spring of 1934, as the Reichsbank’s reserves fell to crisis levels, this optimism be pp. 110-113
However, by the spring of 1934, as the Reichsbank’s reserves fell to crisis levels, this optimism began to wear rather thin.** Despite its p…
Reichsbank cuts foreign exchange quotas for importers pp. 110-113
True to his word, in March 1934 the Reichsbank began progressively reduc- ing the monthly foreign exchange quotas for Germany’s importers.
The markets responded with a flurry of speculation.** Mean- while, in the summer of 1934 business ci pp. 114-117
The markets responded with a flurry of speculation.** Mean- while, in the summer of 1934 business circles began to make their own preparatio…
Though its critics denounced the Krogmann Plan as just one more cranky currency scheme, a similar sy pp. 114-117
Though its critics denounced the Krogmann Plan as just one more cranky currency scheme, a similar system was in fact adopted by Austria in e…
The American government could protest on behalf of its private creditors, as it did in early 1934. pp. 118-121
The American government could protest on behalf of its private creditors, as it did in early 1934.
Anglo-German Payments Agreement signed pp. 118-121
The British for their part allowed themselves to be enrolled in a bilateral commercial agreement in the form of the Anglo-German Payments Ag…
US Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act enacted pp. 118-121
With the dollar having finally ended its precipitatecollapse, Hull began a systematic campaign for trade liberalization with the Reciprocal…
The national campaign against ‘critics and rubbishers’, which he had launched with his anti-Semitic pp. 126-131
The national campaign against ‘critics and rubbishers’, which he had launched with his anti-Semitic tirade of May 1934, had not gone well.
As in his national address on 1 February, his central theme was the turning point in German history pp. 126-131
As in his national address on 1 February, his central theme was the turning point in German history marked by the defeat and revolution of 1…
With this in mind, big business had little good to expect from the government appointed by President pp. 136-139
With this in mind, big business had little good to expect from the government appointed by President Hindenburg on 30 January 1933.
Albert’s brother Eugen Voegler ran the RWE’s construction associate, HOCHTIEF.” Outside the western pp. 140-143
Albert’s brother Eugen Voegler ran the RWE’s construction associate, HOCHTIEF.” Outside the western regions of Germany, the main generators…
The reformed Reichsbank, the Reich Ministry of Economic Affairs, the Reich Labour Ministry and the R pp. 144-147
The reformed Reichsbank, the Reich Ministry of Economic Affairs, the Reich Labour Ministry and the Reich Ministry of Food and Agriculture we…
Furthermore, though it is important to do justice to the shift in power relations between the state pp. 144-147
Furthermore, though it is important to do justice to the shift in power relations between the state and business that undoubtedly occurred i…
In historical terms, however, the alliance between the German chemical industry and Hitler’s regime pp. 144-147
In historical terms, however, the alliance between the German chemical industry and Hitler’s regime was unique and developed out of a chain…
Indeed, Bosch’s central objective in promoting the merger seems to have been to attain sufficient sc pp. 148-151
Indeed, Bosch’s central objective in promoting the merger seems to have been to attain sufficient scale to be able to finance the progress o…
Schacht takes over the Reich Economics Ministry pp. 148-151
In early 1934 Hitler began to exert personal pressure for a more substantial programme and once Hjalmar Schacht took over at the RWM in Augu…
Kranefuss’s appointment to head Brabag was approved by Hitler himself in a meeting with Schacht and pp. 148-151
Kranefuss’s appointment to head Brabag was approved by Hitler himself in a meeting with Schacht and Keppler in early November 1934.
If we are to believe the most recent account of his activities, Krupp was initially suspicious of Hi pp. 152-155
If we are to believe the most recent account of his activities, Krupp was initially suspicious of Hitler’s regime and was above all concerne…
This was clearly intended as part of a more general reorganiz- ation in the coal industry, which als pp. 152-155
This was clearly intended as part of a more general reorganiz- ation in the coal industry, which also included the notorious manoeuvrethroug…
When Hitler declared Germany’s open rearmament in 1935, though Rohland had now risen to a responsibl pp. 152-155
When Hitler declared Germany’s open rearmament in 1935, though Rohland had now risen to a responsible position within Vestag, he immediately…
Vv Unlike in chemicals and steel, where the regime was dealing with large and well-established produ pp. 156-159
Vv Unlike in chemicals and steel, where the regime was dealing with large and well-established producers, the most dramatic industrial inter…
By 1938 Junkers, even before it began its most dramatic period of expansion, already ranked alongsid pp. 156-159
By 1938 Junkers, even before it began its most dramatic period of expansion, already ranked alongside Daimler-Benz as Germany’s twelfth larg…
Berlin conference sets Nazi aircraft industry policy pp. 156-159
The new dispensation was spelled out to the German aircraft industry at a conference held in Berlin on 20 October 1933, two days after the J…
Air Ministry contracts IG Farben for Leuna fuel plant pp. 160-163
On ro June 1936 the Air Ministry signed a second major contract with IG Farben, this time to build a plant at Leuna capable of turning out 2…
Rather than obstructing political change as it had done in Germany’s first revolution in 1918-19, bi pp. 164-169
Rather than obstructing political change as it had done in Germany’s first revolution in 1918-19, big business was an active partner in many…
Hitler and his acolytes were firmly convinced that the development of the German-standard of living pp. 178-181
Hitler and his acolytes were firmly convinced that the development of the German-standard of living had been held back since 1918 by an unho…
German advertising council restricts use of 'Volk' pp. 178-181
In fact, by 1933 the use of the term ‘Volk’ had become so inflationary that the newly established German advertising council was forced to b…
Propaganda Ministry commissions the People's Radio pp. 178-181
In May 1933 the Propaganda Ministry took the initiative by coming to an agreement with a group of radio manufacturers to push through the la…
Fritz Todt put in charge of autobahn construction pp. 182-185
To remedy this deficit, the autobahn project was announced in the summer and by early 1934 responsibility for national road construction and…
Nazi regime abolishes tax on newly bought cars pp. 182-185
In April 1933, the regime also announced the elimination of car tax on all newly acquired vehicles.
Ironically, it was not Ford, but Ford’s great rival that introduced Fordist mass- production to Germ pp. 182-185
Ironically, it was not Ford, but Ford’s great rival that introduced Fordist mass- production to German metalworking.” And the substantial in…
In July 1936, the project began to slip definitively out of the hands of German industry. pp. 186-189
In July 1936, the project began to slip definitively out of the hands of German industry.
As Robert Ley, the leader of the DAF, later put it, the party in 1937 took over where private indust pp. 186-189
As Robert Ley, the leader of the DAF, later put it, the party in 1937 took over where private industry on account of its ‘short sightedness,…
Porsche founds Volkswagen development company Gezuvor pp. 186-189
On 28 May 1937 Porsche and his associates founded the Gesellschaft zur Vorbereitung des Deutschen Volkswagens mbH (Gezuvor).
Though this required the Reich to provide no funds, the willingness of the Reich to guarantee lender pp. 190-193
Though this required the Reich to provide no funds, the willingness of the Reich to guarantee lenders against default helped to reduce the c…
Reich Labour Ministry launches Volkswohnungen housing pp. 190-193
Facing a continuing problem of overcrowding in the cities, in 1935 the Reich Labour Ministry launched an alternative vision of National Soci…
Instead of the 300,000 per year that the Labour Ministry had intended, construction on only 117,000 pp. 190-193
Instead of the 300,000 per year that the Labour Ministry had intended, construction on only 117,000 Volkswohnungen was started between 1935…
On Germany’s eastern borders in the early 1920s, the turmoil of war, revolution and civil war in Rus pp. 199-202
On Germany’s eastern borders in the early 1920s, the turmoil of war, revolution and civil war in Russia, Poland and the Ukraine had precipit…
Two books later he had established himself as a leading, young ideologue of the right, with close li pp. 199-202
Two books later he had established himself as a leading, young ideologue of the right, with close links to the nationalist coven known as th…
Having been unsettled first by the revolution of 1905, Backe found himself in 1914 as an internee in pp. 203-206
Having been unsettled first by the revolution of 1905, Backe found himself in 1914 as an internee in the Urals.
After a lull in the 1920s Backe reactivated his party membership in 1931 and was elected to the Prus pp. 203-206
After a lull in the 1920s Backe reactivated his party membership in 1931 and was elected to the Prussian parliament in 1932 with Darré’s enc…
If all the land held by farms over 500 hectares in 1933 had been compre- hensively expropriated and pp. 207-211
If all the land held by farms over 500 hectares in 1933 had been compre- hensively expropriated and used to create family farms of 20 hectar…
As the Nazi party prepared for power in the euphoric summer of 1932, Darré elaborated in very specif pp. 212-215
As the Nazi party prepared for power in the euphoric summer of 1932, Darré elaborated in very specific terms on the future mission of the SS…
In 1933, after the fall of Hugenberg, and again in 1934, after Kurt Schmitt resigned, Darré was rumo pp. 220-223
In 1933, after the fall of Hugenberg, and again in 1934, after Kurt Schmitt resigned, Darré was rumoured to be bidding to take over the Mini…
Discreet butter rationing introduced in Germany pp. 224-227
To dole out the scarce supply of butter, a discreet system of rationing was introduced in the autumn of 1935, in the form of customer lists…
In general, however, a wholesale increase in food prices was ruled out by fear of provoking the kind pp. 224-227
In general, however, a wholesale increase in food prices was ruled out by fear of provoking the kind of public outrage that had shown itself…
Gestapo reports a milk strike in Wesermuende pp. 224-227
In September 1935, with hundreds of farms delivering suspiciously small amounts of milk to the local dairy, the Gestapo reported what amount…
7 1936: Four Years to War In retrospect it seems obvious that the world began its descent into war, pp. 235-238
7 1936: Four Years to War In retrospect it seems obvious that the world began its descent into war, not in 1939, but four years earlier.' In…
Spanish officers rebel against the Popular Front pp. 235-238
Two months later, in July 1936, right-wing officers launched their rebellion against the newly elected Popular Front government of Spain.
Germany and Japan sign the Anti-Comintern Pact pp. 235-238
Shortly after- wards, in November 1936, Germany allied itself with Japan, the chief aggressor in Asia, in the anti-Comintern pact.
This was an amount calculated to provide for the two-stage rearmament plan of 1933: four years to bu pp. 239-242
This was an amount calculated to provide for the two-stage rearmament plan of 1933: four years to build a basic defensive capacity, four mor…
In the spring of 1935 France lengthened its period of conscription to two years and the British gove pp. 239-242
In the spring of 1935 France lengthened its period of conscription to two years and the British government announced a major reconsideration…
Hitler announces a 36-division German army pp. 239-242
In March 1935 Hitler announced to the world the creation of a German peacetime army of no less than 36 divisions.
Nor was it a coincidence that Britain finally entered into dis- cussions of a possible trade agreeme pp. 247-250
Nor was it a coincidence that Britain finally entered into dis- cussions of a possible trade agreement with the United States in June 1936.
1936: FOUR YEARS TO WAR well.’ In future, all economic measures were to be taken ‘as if we were in a pp. 255-259
1936: FOUR YEARS TO WAR well.’ In future, all economic measures were to be taken ‘as if we were in a state of imminent war!’ Five days later…
It seems, in fact, that Schacht may have wanted to hitch the Reichsmark to the tripartite currency a pp. 255-259
It seems, in fact, that Schacht may have wanted to hitch the Reichsmark to the tripartite currency agreement that was finally announced to t…
Raw materials and labour, not money, would dictate the pace of Germany’s military expansion.” A day pp. 255-259
Raw materials and labour, not money, would dictate the pace of Germany’s military expansion.” A day later, General Fritsch as commander-in-c…
This point emerges very clearly from the soul-searching that went on after the war on the part of Dr pp. 260-264
This point emerges very clearly from the soul-searching that went on after the war on the part of Dr Georg von Schnitzler, second in command…
Germany imposes steel and metal rationing pp. 260-264
Rationing of nonferrous metals was adopted in January 1937; steel rationing was imposed as of 23 February 1937.” To clear the backlog with t…
To meet the target, approved in December 1936, of creating a wartime army of 3.6 million men by 1940 pp. 260-264
To meet the target, approved in December 1936, of creating a wartime army of 3.6 million men by 1940, the army had requested 270,500 tons of…
There were voices in Britain calling for precisely such a move.'”' At the end of 1936, the Anglo-Ger pp. 265-268
There were voices in Britain calling for precisely such a move.'”' At the end of 1936, the Anglo-German standstill agreement came up again f…
He could not afford to allow Britain to unpick 233 THE WAGES OF DESTRUCTION the complex structure o pp. 265-268
He could not afford to allow Britain to unpick 233 THE WAGES OF DESTRUCTION the complex structure of bilateral agreements he had established…
In the first months of 1937 the steel allocation to the export sector was set at 505,000 monthly ton pp. 265-268
In the first months of 1937 the steel allocation to the export sector was set at 505,000 monthly tons — as much as the Wehrmacht and the Fou…
He also had personal memories of the short-sightedness of 1914, when General Falkenhayn had declared pp. 269-272
He also had personal memories of the short-sightedness of 1914, when General Falkenhayn had declared that he would not need even the full pr…
As Thomas put it in his memo: “The troops do not understand why the state, the [Nazi] party and busi pp. 269-272
As Thomas put it in his memo: “The troops do not understand why the state, the [Nazi] party and business are permitted to undertake large co…
The new mood in the Ministry is well summed up by a quip circulating amongst the established civil s pp. 273-277
The new mood in the Ministry is well summed up by a quip circulating amongst the established civil servants, who described Goering’s newcome…
From the spring of 1938 onwards, Hitler began seri- ously to contemplate the need for a major war in pp. 278-281
From the spring of 1938 onwards, Hitler began seri- ously to contemplate the need for a major war in the West, as a prelude to his drive aga…
To anyone thinking clearly, it should not have come as any surprise.'’ No progress had been made tow pp. 278-281
To anyone thinking clearly, it should not have come as any surprise.'’ No progress had been made towards an agreement with Britain since the…
It was this coalition, after all, that had defeated Germany in 1918. pp. 278-281
It was this coalition, after all, that had defeated Germany in 1918.
Britain adopts the Scheme L air programme pp. 282-286
THE WAGES OF DESTRUCTION ‘business as usual’, London adopted an ambitious new air programme (Scheme L), which called for the production of 1…
Goering approves the New Military-Economic Production Plan pp. 282-286
To make up the gap, on 12 July 1938 Goering approved a new version of the Four Year Plan known as the New Military-Economic Production Plan…
Krauch launches the Schnellplan emergency programme pp. 282-286
To reach World War I levels by the end of 1939, Krauch launched the Schnellplan, a short-range emergency programme with absolutely top prior…
In the autumn of 1938 freight trains regularly left stations festooned with red repair slips 258 IN pp. 287-291
In the autumn of 1938 freight trains regularly left stations festooned with red repair slips 258 INTO THE DANGER ZONE indicating faulty brak…
This at least was the conclusion that emerged from a day-long conference on 2 June 1938 attended by pp. 287-291
This at least was the conclusion that emerged from a day-long conference on 2 June 1938 attended by a roster of Germany’s most prestigious e…
As the Reichsbank concluded, it was increasingly idle to discuss the ‘correct’ devaluation necessary pp. 297-300
As the Reichsbank concluded, it was increasingly idle to discuss the ‘correct’ devaluation necessary to bring the German and international p…
Beck did not comment on the Luftwaffe, but internal sources make it clear that it was far from ready pp. 301-304
Beck did not comment on the Luftwaffe, but internal sources make it clear that it was far from ready for war in the autumn of 1938.”° The Ge…
In his talks with Siegmund (1938) pp. 301-304
Weizsaecker for his part had already concluded in early June 1938 that in the event of a war with Britain and France, Germany would find its…
Aryanization seizes Jewish factories and banks pp. 305-308
Aryanization sales in 1938 included 340 major factories, almost all of which were in textiles and clothing, 370 wholesale trading firms and…
It banned them from selling goods at trade fairs and debarred them from holding any position of auth pp. 309-312
It banned them from selling goods at trade fairs and debarred them from holding any position of authority in any firm.!”° Taken together, th…
Roosevelt proposes an international refugee committee pp. 309-312
On 25 March 1938, within weeks of the Anschluss, President Roosevelt had proposed the formation of an international committee to address the…
It was not until after the conference with Goering on 12 November 1938 that Reichsbank president Hja pp. 309-312
It was not until after the conference with Goering on 12 November 1938 that Reichsbank president Hjalmar Schacht was authorized to attempt o…
284 9 1939: Nothing to Gain by Waiting Within days of the Munich agreement, the Reichsbank economic pp. 313-317
284 9 1939: Nothing to Gain by Waiting Within days of the Munich agreement, the Reichsbank economics department drafted a memorandum, which,…
The draft memorandum of 3 October 1938 concluded with a dramatic warning: The National Socialist sta pp. 318-321
The draft memorandum of 3 October 1938 concluded with a dramatic warning: The National Socialist state leadership has managed, despite the c…
Goering announces air programme targeting war by 1942 pp. 318-321
By telephone I receive instructions: all preparations now for war against England, target 1942!’° Two weeks later, on 14 October 1938, Goeri…
On 20 October 1938 it announced that it would need to claim no less than 4.5 million tons of steel i pp. 318-321
On 20 October 1938 it announced that it would need to claim no less than 4.5 million tons of steel in 1939, almost a quarter of Germany’s to…
The civilian labour service introduced in 1933 was to be trimmed back. pp. 322-325
The civilian labour service introduced in 1933 was to be trimmed back.
On 11 November 1938, Keitel, the chief of the OKW, noted: ‘After having been put in the picture abou pp. 322-325
On 11 November 1938, Keitel, the chief of the OKW, noted: ‘After having been put in the picture about the armaments programmes by the Comman…
Apart from the elimination of the rumpof Czechoslovakia, the first key element in this strategy was pp. 322-325
Apart from the elimination of the rumpof Czechoslovakia, the first key element in this strategy was the incorpor- 292 1939: NOTHING TO GAIN…
Reich adopts the New Finance Plan pp. 330-333
To ease its cash flow problems the Reich adopted a new expedient in the form of the New Finance Plan (Neuer Finanzplan) of 20 March 1939.
They amounted in effect to a compulsory low-interest loan to the Reich, which by October 1939 had al pp. 330-333
They amounted in effect to a compulsory low-interest loan to the Reich, which by October 1939 had already risen to a total of 4.831 billion…
The 1938 Reich budget closed with an excess of spending over tax revenue and safe long-term borrowin pp. 330-333
The 1938 Reich budget closed with an excess of spending over tax revenue and safe long-term borrowing of 5.7 billion Reichsmarks.*’ The addi…
However, in the spring of 1939 the formation of a triple alliance of France, Britain and the Soviet pp. 334-338
However, in the spring of 1939 the formation of a triple alliance of France, Britain and the Soviet Union against Hitler seemed inevitable.”…
Anglo-American Trade Agreement signed pp. 334-338
The Anglo-American Trade Agreement signed on 2 November 1938 sent a clear message to Berlin.”’ As Britain and America celebrated their new u…
If these ideas are not translated immediately into action, then every sacrifice of blood in the next pp. 339-342
If these ideas are not translated immediately into action, then every sacrifice of blood in the next war will not protect us against the bit…
Whereas Germany attempted to suck Romania into its orbit, Turkey opted for the Western powers, secur pp. 339-342
Whereas Germany attempted to suck Romania into its orbit, Turkey opted for the Western powers, securing the right flank of the British Empir…
In fact, the Wehrmacht’s military-economic office had already concluded in April 1939 that oil suppl pp. 339-342
In fact, the Wehrmacht’s military-economic office had already concluded in April 1939 that oil supplies from Romania would be sufficient to…
Following the German occupation of Prague on 15 March, it was, as we have seen, generally assumed th pp. 348-351
Following the German occupation of Prague on 15 March, it was, as we have seen, generally assumed that a Triple a 318 1939: NOTHING TO GAIN…
As Germany’s diplomats clearly understood, Stalin’s increasing emphasis from the spring of 1939 onwa pp. 348-351
As Germany’s diplomats clearly understood, Stalin’s increasing emphasis from the spring of 1939 onwards on the classic Leninist doc- trine o…
As early as 26 May Ribbentrop drafted a full set of instructions for the German embassy in Moscow, i pp. 348-351
As early as 26 May Ribbentrop drafted a full set of instructions for the German embassy in Moscow, in which he firmly underlined the essen-…
By the summer of 1939 the naval alliance with Japan was off the table. pp. 352-355
By the summer of 1939 the naval alliance with Japan was off the table.
Ribbentrop signs the Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact pp. 352-355
In the early hours of 24 August 1939, Hitler’s Foreign Minister Ribbentrop signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, which include…
Hitler could hardly wait to : 320 1939: NOTHING TO GAIN BY WAITING announce the news from Moscow, b pp. 352-355
Hitler could hardly wait to : 320 1939: NOTHING TO GAIN BY WAITING announce the news from Moscow, boasting to his anxious generals that Germ…
This might seem a strange suggestion in light of the fact that Hitler went to war in September 1939 pp. 356-360
This might seem a strange suggestion in light of the fact that Hitler went to war in September 1939 in alliance with the Soviet Union agains…
However, studies done by the Luftwaffe staff in 1938 had concluded that a strategic air war against pp. 356-360
However, studies done by the Luftwaffe staff in 1938 had concluded that a strategic air war against Britain was out of the question unless G…
Roosevelt signs the Cash and Carry Act pp. 361-364
Within weeks of the outbreak of war, the isolationists lost the argument in Congress.** On 3 November 1939 President Roosevelt signed into l…
On 24 March, General Thomas noted the follow- ing conversation with Fritz Todt: ‘Fuehrer has again e pp. 369-372
On 24 March, General Thomas noted the follow- ing conversation with Fritz Todt: ‘Fuehrer has again emphasized ener- getically that everythin…
Hitler approves munitions programme favoring heavy artillery pp. 369-372
Based on figures that Hitler had cribbed from the standard history of the Great War, it gave priority above all to howitzers and heavy morta…
Ju 88 bomber mass-production begins pp. 373-376
The long-awaited mass-production of the Ju 88 finally began in the autumn of 1939.
Ever since the raw materials crisis began in early 1939, Brauchitsch had been fretting that a non-mi pp. 377-381
Ever since the raw materials crisis began in early 1939, Brauchitsch had been fretting that a non-military ‘plenipotentiary’ might be appoin…
As Keitel put it to Thomas in January 1940: ‘The main thing is that one has the impression that the pp. 377-381
As Keitel put it to Thomas in January 1940: ‘The main thing is that one has the impression that the ammunition programme has now started up…
Todt appointed to head Ministry for Ammunition pp. 377-381
And it was Todt who was duly appointed by Hitler on 17 March 1940 to head a new Ministry for Ammunition.
Todt Ministry creates gun and artillery committee pp. 382-385
Finally, in Novem- ber 1940 the Todt Ministry established a national committee to oversee the production of guns and artillery, headed Para…
Then, from the first months of 1940 onwards, as rationing began to bite and the shelves of the Germa pp. 386-390
Then, from the first months of 1940 onwards, as rationing began to bite and the shelves of the German shops emptied, the accounts of the sav…
Chief medical officer Dr Leonardo Conti declared as early as October 1939 that long hours and the re pp. 391-394
Chief medical officer Dr Leonardo Conti declared as early as October 1939 that long hours and the restric- ted wartime diet were pushing the…
What haunted everybody was the experience of World War 1.1” 361 THE WAGES OF DESTRUCTION Faced with pp. 391-394
What haunted everybody was the experience of World War 1.1” 361 THE WAGES OF DESTRUCTION Faced with this possibility, Backe demanded that ev…
In the council of the Four Year Plan, he explicitly invoked the nightmare of the Nazi regime, a coll pp. 395-398
In the council of the Four Year Plan, he explicitly invoked the nightmare of the Nazi regime, a collapse in the food supply like that which…
It was not finally adopted until February 1940, by which time the great ammunition drive was already pp. 399-402
It was not finally adopted until February 1940, by which time the great ammunition drive was already in full swing.
367 Ink Victory in the West — Sieg im Westen At 5.35 on the morning of 10 May 1940, after months of pp. 399-402
367 Ink Victory in the West — Sieg im Westen At 5.35 on the morning of 10 May 1940, after months of ‘phoney war’, the Western front roared i…
The German army that invaded France in May 1940 was far from being a carefully honed weapon of moder pp. 403-406
The German army that invaded France in May 1940 was far from being a carefully honed weapon of modern armoured warfare.’ Of Germany’s 93 com…
Though Germany’s overall tank strength in May 1940 was certainly not overwhelming, matters would hav pp. 407-410
Though Germany’s overall tank strength in May 1940 was certainly not overwhelming, matters would have been far worse but for the tank produc…
Germany signs arms-for-oil deal with Romania pp. 411-414
In March 1940, the German Foreign Office began the process of rolling back Anglo-French domi- nance in the Ploesti oilfield, by concluding a…
The non-combatants and neutrals of Southern Europe moved in a similar fashion.*’ Most spectacularly, pp. 411-414
The non-combatants and neutrals of Southern Europe moved in a similar fashion.*’ Most spectacularly, Mussolini reversed his position of the…
How- ever, the value of goods seized by the victorious Wehrmacht was clearly enormous.*' A French en pp. 415-419
How- ever, the value of goods seized by the victorious Wehrmacht was clearly enormous.*' A French enumeration of goods taken by the Germans…
395 EZ Britain and America: Hitler’s Strategic Dilemma In July 1940, in a desperate bid to unhitch pp. 424-428
395 EZ Britain and America: Hitler’s Strategic Dilemma In July 1940, in a desperate bid to unhitch the Soviet Union from its pact with Germa…
But once Roosevelt was safely re-elected in Nov- ember 1940 and the Anglo-American alliance began to pp. 429-432
But once Roosevelt was safely re-elected in Nov- ember 1940 and the Anglo-American alliance began to take on concrete form, the Third Reich…
Despite the euphoria that followed the victory parades of July 1940, these basic preconditions for t pp. 429-432
Despite the euphoria that followed the victory parades of July 1940, these basic preconditions for the defeat of Britain were never met.’ At…
In the spring of 1941, before the United States began to intervene decisively in the naval war, it d pp. 429-432
In the spring of 1941, before the United States began to intervene decisively in the naval war, it did briefly seem as though British supply…
Battle of Britain enters critical phase pp. 433-436
By September 1940, Hitler thus faced a real strategic dilemma. The German army had proved itself devastatingly effective, but both the navy…
Luftwaffe secures aircraft deal with Vichy France pp. 442-446
On 12 February 1941 the Luftwaffe finally got its deal. France agreed to produce 3,000 aircraft under licence as well as 13,500 aero-engines…
Italy threatens to halt Mediterranean naval operations pp. 442-446
By February 1941, the Italian navy was threatening to halt its operations in the Mediterranean altogether unless Germany supplied at least 2…
German army plans 40,000 tanks for post-Soviet war pp. 469-474
An internal planning document produced by the army in May 1941 called for the production of almost 40,000 tanks and 130,000 half-tracks over…
Nazis begin gas van experiments for mass killing pp. 529-533
By the end of 1941 was leading to the first experiments with gas vans, a method considered more adequate to the humanity of the perpetrators…
Himmler designates Auschwitz for Western European Jews pp. 593-596
After visiting Auschwitz and designating it as the killing centre for the Jews of Western Europe, Himmler on 18-19 July issued not one, but…
Nazi death camps reach peak killing capacity pp. 593-596
In the autumn of 1942 Treblinka, Chelmno and Belzec were operating at full speed.
Hitler faces strategic dilemma after Battle of Britain failure pp. 433-436
By September 1940, Hitler thus faced a real strategic dilemma. The German army had proved itself devastatingly effective, but both the navy…
Britain launches strategic bombing offensive on Germany pp. 433-436
the British in the autumn of 1940 embarked on the enormous task of building an air fleet of heavy bombers
Anglo-American aircraft production scheme drafted pp. 437-441
On 23 July 1940 British procurement agents in Washington were invited to a clandestine meeting with American industrial planners
France agrees to aircraft production for Wehrmacht pp. 442-446
On 12 February 1941 the Luftwaffe finally got its deal. France agreed to produce 3,000 aircraft under licence
US Congress passes the Lend-Lease Act pp. 442-446
On 11 March 1941 Congress made an immediate appropriation of $8.3 billion for British war supplies.
Italy demands 250,000 tons fuel from Germany monthly pp. 442-446
By February 1941, the Italian navy was threatening to halt its operations in the Mediterranean altogether unless Germany supplied at least 2…
Wehrmacht exhausts available male population for warfare pp. 469-474
of those aged between 20 and 30, who were physically fit for military service, 85 per cent were already in the Wehrmacht
Hitler predicts inevitable global war with America pp. 469-474
Hitler himself set the tone with his address to the commanders-in-chief at Berchtesgaden on 9 January 1941.
German army plans post-Soviet campaign with 36 Panzer divisions pp. 469-474
An internal planning document produced by the army in May 1941 called for the production of almost 40,000 tanks and 130,000 half-tracks
Nazis begin gas van experiments for mass killing pp. 529-533
By the end of 1941 was leading to the first experiments with gas vans, a method considered more adequate
Hitler declares Jewish destruction the war's consequence pp. 550-553
The world war is here, the destruction of the Jews must be the inevitable consequence.
Backe demands 3.5 million Jews removed from food supply pp. 593-596
Poland is to be sanitized within the coming year.
Goering orders occupied territories to starve pp. 593-596
The Fuehrer repeatedly said, and I repeat after him: if any one has to go hungry, it shall not be the Germans, but other peoples
Nazi death camps reach peak killing capacity pp. 593-596
In the autumn of 1942 Treblinka, Chelmno and Belzec were operating at full speed.
Roosevelt proposes 50,000 aircraft per year pp. 433-436
President Roosevelt put before Congress the proposal to
Einsatzgruppe A destroys Baltic Jewish communities pp. 529-533
It was responsible for the destruction of the great Jewish
Leningrad encircled by German and Finnish forces pp. 529-533
The German and Finnish pincers closed around Leningrad in
Wehrmacht starves Soviet POWs to death pp. 529-533
By the end of December 1941, according to the Wehrmacht
Einsatzgruppe A executes German Jews at Kaunas pp. 550-553
On 25 and 29 November in Kaunas, units from Einsatzgruppe
Hitler declares war on the United States pp. 550-553
The appropriately revised version of the Tripartite Pact was
Wannsee Conference plans the Final Solution pp. 550-553
When he addressed the civil servants in Wannsee on 20
Himmler designates Auschwitz for Western European Jews pp. 593-596
After visiting Auschwitz and designating it as the killing
Albert Speer takes control of armaments pp. 614-617
Albert Speer made clear that he would accept no interference
Hitler prioritizes ammunition production pp. 614-617
Nor can one fault the logic of concentrating on ammunition first.
IG Farben becomes the industrial engine of the Reich whole source
Historians answer Sutton with a profit-not-plot reading whole source