Turing's Cathedral: The Origins of the Digital Universe

George Dyson

trusted · 282 citation(s)

Attached file

Source files are not served on the public archive. Metadata and citations remain available.

Cited by (282)

6.17.D97 2012 004’.09—dc23 2011030265 www.pantheonbooks.com whole source
6.17.D97 2012 004’.09—dc23 2011030265 www.pantheonbooks.com Cover design by Peter Mendelsund v3.1
1946 There are two kinds of creation myths: those where lif whole source
1946 There are two kinds of creation myths: those where life arises out of the mud
Von Neumann assembles computer team at Princeton IAS whole source
at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton
Turing conceives the Universal Machine whole source
Von Neumann’s project was the physical realization of Alan Turing’s Universal Machine
from his office at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princ whole source
from his office at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton
There was one notable exception: Julian Bigelow whole source
There was one notable exception: Julian Bigelow
“Institutes like nations are perhaps happiest if they have n whole source
“Institutes like nations are perhaps happiest if they have no history
up; visitor at the IAS ECP in 1947; author of Programming fo whole source
up; visitor at the IAS ECP in 1947; author of Programming for an Automatic Digital Calculator (1958)
ONE 1953 If it’s that easy to create living organisms whole source
ONE 1953 If it’s that easy to create living organisms
—Nils Aall Barricelli, 1953 AT 10:38 P.M whole source
—Nils Aall Barricelli, 1953 AT 10:38 P.M
Tukey shortly after he joined von Neumann’s project in Novem whole source
Tukey shortly after he joined von Neumann’s project in November of 1945
MANIAC computer completed and first tested whole source
Mathematical and Numerical Integrator and Computer
The year 1953 was one of frenzied preparations in between whole source
The year 1953 was one of frenzied preparations in between
conducted at the Nevada Test Site in 1953 whole source
conducted at the Nevada Test Site in 1953
“original people” or “Men of Men” whole source
“original people” or “Men of Men”
“From thence [June] to this present Month [August] whole source
“From thence [June] to this present Month [August]
Henry Hudson explores the Newark estuary and Hudson River whole source
representing the Dutch East India Company
left their home in the landlocked Valdres district of Norway whole source
left their home in the landlocked Valdres district of Norway to emigrate to America
the first of their eleven American children whole source
the first of their eleven American children
While the nine children who survived their pioneer existence whole source
While the nine children who survived their pioneer existence were growing up
icians had a function to perform in the world.”6 After the whole source
icians had a function to perform in the world.”6 After the Armistice was signed in November of 1918
of the General Education Board.”9 The Rockefeller Foundation whole source
of the General Education Board.”9 The Rockefeller Foundation’s General Education Board
was a Jewish immigrant peddler who settled in Louisville in whole source
was a Jewish immigrant peddler who settled in Louisville in 1854
equivalent to over $6 million today whole source
equivalent to over $6 million today
Fine Hall opens at Princeton whole source
find it necessary to return to their homes to dress”) to the top-floor library with natural lighting
translated at the time as “God is clever, but not dishonest” whole source
translated at the time as “God is clever, but not dishonest”
ke Faraday and Clerk Maxwell who never gave a thought to the whole source
ke Faraday and Clerk Maxwell who never gave a thought to the possible financial profit of their work
effective October 1, 1932 whole source
effective October 1, 1932
Von Neumann, Weyl, and Alexander join the IAS whole source
They were joined by John von Neumann, Hermann Weyl, and James Alexander in 1933, and Marston Morse i
“The other half of the year the staff will be technically on whole source
“The other half of the year the staff will be technically on vacation
who is extremely grateful for the increase in his salary whole source
who is extremely grateful for the increase in his salary
re going out all over Europe and when such illumination as w whole source
re going out all over Europe and when such illumination as we have in the blackout is likely to come
Margittai Neumann János Lajos to his fellow Hungarians whole source
Margittai Neumann János Lajos to his fellow Hungarians
hment of the dual Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1867 had brou whole source
hment of the dual Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1867 had brought an interlude of peace and prosperity
knowledge and financial resources that drove Hungary’s moder whole source
knowledge and financial resources that drove Hungary’s modernization in the years before World War I
the stupidity of the Stock Exchange boys whole source
the stupidity of the Stock Exchange boys
Sometimes they could not get together for a couple of weeks whole source
Sometimes they could not get together for a couple of weeks
“The light theories of Dirac are not easy to explain whole source
“The light theories of Dirac are not easy to explain
the claw of the lion whole source
the claw of the lion
and universal computation whole source
and universal computation
“one can divine the germ of von Neumann’s future interest in whole source
“one can divine the germ of von Neumann’s future interest in computing machines
although prevented from leaving until 1940 whole source
although prevented from leaving until 1940
Von Neumann found himself at the center of a thriving mathem whole source
Von Neumann found himself at the center of a thriving mathematical community
“I would come to Fine Hall in the morning and look for von N whole source
“I would come to Fine Hall in the morning and look for von Neumann’s huge car
In a report to the Navy Bureau of Ordnance in 1943 whole source
In a report to the Navy Bureau of Ordnance in 1943
“Almost continuous: from Princeton to Boston whole source
“Almost continuous: from Princeton to Boston
We do know that he made a visit in late April of 1943 whole source
We do know that he made a visit in late April of 1943
such a pure and ivory-towerish mathematician would show so m whole source
such a pure and ivory-towerish mathematician would show so much interest in his applied problems and
Von Neumann convenes computer planning meeting at RCA whole source
gathered in Vladimir Zworykin’s office at RCA’s research laboratories in Princeton
ound) was one of the principal organizers of the army’s Elec whole source
ound) was one of the principal organizers of the army’s Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer
Lee De Forest invents the triode vacuum tube whole source
led by John Ambrose Fleming, whose work preceded De Forest’s
“Numbers may be added or multiplied quickly and without the whole source
“Numbers may be added or multiplied quickly and without the complication of timing impulses
uld remember indefinitely without rejuvenation … just memori whole source
uld remember indefinitely without rejuvenation … just memorize forever until we want the information
all-digital “Electronic Computing Device” that would perform whole source
all-digital “Electronic Computing Device” that would perform binary arithmetic at electronic speeds
and upgraded with 100 words of magnetic-core memory in 1953 whole source
and upgraded with 100 words of magnetic-core memory in 1953
Herman Goldstine gave a briefing to the director of the labo whole source
Herman Goldstine gave a briefing to the director of the laboratory
e to my presentation and teetering on the back legs of his c whole source
e to my presentation and teetering on the back legs of his chair brought the chair down with a crash
on behalf of the implosion effort at Los Alamos whole source
on behalf of the implosion effort at Los Alamos
“All through 1944, and in 1945 as well, we were leading a ‘d whole source
“All through 1944, and in 1945 as well, we were leading a ‘double life,’ ” Mauchly recalls
y like Fermi of the importance of numerical calculation the whole source
y like Fermi of the importance of numerical calculation the way von Neumann could.”41 In early 1945
Not only was von Neumann impatient to get started on the com whole source
Not only was von Neumann impatient to get started on the computer
“I propose to store everything that has to be remembered by whole source
“I propose to store everything that has to be remembered by the machine
do not recognize at present because they are farthest remove whole source
do not recognize at present because they are farthest removed from … our present sphere.”66 Strauss
perhaps not ENIAC as first completed but certainly all later whole source
perhaps not ENIAC as first completed but certainly all later ones
ROSPECT of a visit from an architect usually costs Professor whole source
ROSPECT of a visit from an architect usually costs Professor Veblen a day’s work and a night’s sleep
” Klári von Neumann observed upon her arrival in Princeton i whole source
” Klári von Neumann observed upon her arrival in Princeton in 1938
ad his office in one of the buildings along Nassau Street; t whole source
ad his office in one of the buildings along Nassau Street; the mathematicians had rooms in Fine Hall
At the time the computer project was launched in 1946 whole source
At the time the computer project was launched in 1946
jointly constituted the School of Economics and Politics who whole source
jointly constituted the School of Economics and Politics whose establishment
“Formal logic has to be taken over by mathematicians whole source
“Formal logic has to be taken over by mathematicians
ntinue to be a little troubled about the idea of our so-call whole source
ntinue to be a little troubled about the idea of our so-called enemy aliens traveling too far afield
Gödel file their petitions for citizenship whole source
Gödel file their petitions for citizenship
Did you hear about this?” von Neumann wrote to Stan Ulam in whole source
Did you hear about this?” von Neumann wrote to Stan Ulam in May of 1941
top and to flash a light or ring a bell.”41 Some 175 copies whole source
top and to flash a light or ring a bell.”41 Some 175 copies of the report were distributed and then
enrolled in the University of Leipzig as a law student at ag whole source
enrolled in the University of Leipzig as a law student at age fifteen
Leibniz writes the Monadology whole source
the local actualization of a universal mind
the powers of numerical addressing and self-reference whole source
the powers of numerical addressing and self-reference
with a portrait of the duke on the reverse whole source
with a portrait of the duke on the reverse
since it in itself has a very doubtful meaning whole source
since it in itself has a very doubtful meaning
New Jersey—forty-two miles from Princeton—on March 19 whole source
New Jersey—forty-two miles from Princeton—on March 19
He entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology at the whole source
He entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology at the age of seventeen
Bigelow left Sperry and joined IBM in Endicott whole source
Bigelow left Sperry and joined IBM in Endicott
I was not fully aware of the dangers of Benzedrine whole source
I was not fully aware of the dangers of Benzedrine
Wiener and Bigelow publish 'Behavior, Purpose and Teleology' whole source
With neurophysiologist Arturo Rosenblueth
” explained neurophysiologist Warren McCulloch whole source
” explained neurophysiologist Warren McCulloch
and was getting letters from the same address whole source
and was getting letters from the same address
uess was that he must have had a girlfriend there.” Akrevoe whole source
uess was that he must have had a girlfriend there.” Akrevoe remained in Princeton until August 1949
This he did.” The engineers also had to install their own wi whole source
This he did.” The engineers also had to install their own wiring
The new building would not be ready to move into until Chris whole source
The new building would not be ready to move into until Christmas of 1946
especially for those engaged in work on the computer whole source
especially for those engaged in work on the computer
rmined essentially by the existing amplitude of a voltage or whole source
rmined essentially by the existing amplitude of a voltage or signal are called ‘gates.’ ”57 In 1946
While von Neumann was beginning to formulate whole source
While von Neumann was beginning to formulate
was the first in his family to attend college whole source
was the first in his family to attend college
“When I went around for interviews in 1939 whole source
“When I went around for interviews in 1939
1837 PENTAERYTHRITOL TETRANITRATE (PETN) was an important h whole source
1837 PENTAERYTHRITOL TETRANITRATE (PETN) was an important high explosive in World War I
who had “alarmed his mother by mending fuses at the age of t whole source
who had “alarmed his mother by mending fuses at the age of two
Bernal sent Booth on a mission to survey the state of comput whole source
Bernal sent Booth on a mission to survey the state of computing in the United States
By February 1947 the first seventeen families whole source
By February 1947 the first seventeen families
“we have come to know many of our neighbors quite well whole source
“we have come to know many of our neighbors quite well
“We had a tendency to congregate during the evening whole source
“We had a tendency to congregate during the evening
been able to make an arithmetic unit that works when first p whole source
been able to make an arithmetic unit that works when first plugged in and which requires no fussing
In August a ten-stage shift register was put through a life whole source
In August a ten-stage shift register was put through a life test for the entire month
magnetic wire was the recording medium of choice whole source
magnetic wire was the recording medium of choice
“It was confirmed by experiment that an AC magnetic field of whole source
“It was confirmed by experiment that an AC magnetic field of about the strength of the earth’s field
entation in the register into an amplitude representation in whole source
entation in the register into an amplitude representation in the deflection of the oscilloscope spot
In 1947 most electronic devices were laid out in two dimensi whole source
In 1947 most electronic devices were laid out in two dimensions
“The total power dissipated in the main body of the machine whole source
“The total power dissipated in the main body of the machine is approximately 19.5 kw
“All my failures to duplicate occurred during a period of in whole source
“All my failures to duplicate occurred during a period of instability
igh speed computation would do.”75 “A long chain of improba whole source
igh speed computation would do.”75 “A long chain of improbable chance events led to our involvement
1948 “I AM A LITTLE TROUBLED about the tea service in the e whole source
1948 “I AM A LITTLE TROUBLED about the tea service in the electronic computer building
re as Thompson did and carry down a large quantity of sugar whole source
re as Thompson did and carry down a large quantity of sugar in excess of your rations is not cricket
“Von Neumann singled out the problem of numerical weather pr whole source
“Von Neumann singled out the problem of numerical weather prediction for special attention
He remembers: “1946 was a year of ferment whole source
He remembers: “1946 was a year of ferment
Orders will follow.’ ”17 Thompson arrived at the Institute whole source
Orders will follow.’ ”17 Thompson arrived at the Institute in December 1946
ons of weather data projected on a screen and then compute t whole source
ons of weather data projected on a screen and then compute the future weather by analogue techniques
but because they really wanted to believe that forecasting s whole source
but because they really wanted to believe that forecasting should be an art.”31 According to Charney
I made haste to join the project on my return from Europe in whole source
I made haste to join the project on my return from Europe in 1948.”32 Jule Gregory Charney
His parents, Ely and Stella, had emigrated from Russia to Ne whole source
His parents, Ely and Stella, had emigrated from Russia to New York, found work in the garment indust
And so I drove there—we had this 1935 convertible Buick—with whole source
And so I drove there—we had this 1935 convertible Buick—with my wife
Richardson had used the otherwise uneventful morning of May whole source
Richardson had used the otherwise uneventful morning of May 20
when a severe storm struck the central and eastern United St whole source
when a severe storm struck the central and eastern United States
the chief variables which determine the radiational characte whole source
the chief variables which determine the radiational characteristics of the atmosphere
“After global climate control becomes possible whole source
“After global climate control becomes possible
and several others were standing outside of the Electronic C whole source
and several others were standing outside of the Electronic Computer Project Building in Princeton
TEN Monte Carlo Between 1946 and 1955 we crossed the count whole source
TEN Monte Carlo Between 1946 and 1955 we crossed the country twenty-eight times by car
at the center of gravity for incurable gamblers whole source
at the center of gravity for incurable gamblers
attentive husband—he was also eighteen years older than I—an whole source
attentive husband—he was also eighteen years older than I—and I was bored to tears.” Then
He explained how the United States had to maintain quotas ag whole source
He explained how the United States had to maintain quotas against immigrants
o talk an hour and a half on ‘the interpretation of quantum whole source
o talk an hour and a half on ‘the interpretation of quantum mechanics.’ I’m sure we were showing off
I mean it!”25 Klári’s parents escaped to Princeton with the whole source
I mean it!”25 Klári’s parents escaped to Princeton with the opening of the war
40 he was invited to give the John Danz memorial lectures at whole source
40 he was invited to give the John Danz memorial lectures at the University of Washington in Seattle
“Johnny was suddenly in a great hurry to see the Grand Canyo whole source
“Johnny was suddenly in a great hurry to see the Grand Canyon”
Bohr brings news of fission to Princeton whole source
News of the discovery of fission in late 1938 had arrived in Princeton with Niels Bohr in early 1939
“Statistical questions will be amenable to an entirely new k whole source
“Statistical questions will be amenable to an entirely new kind of treatment
on.”44 A statistical approach to otherwise intractable physi whole source
on.”44 A statistical approach to otherwise intractable physical problems had been taken up by others
“Because one seems to be getting something for nothing whole source
“Because one seems to be getting something for nothing
Richtmyer proposes computer simulation of a fission bomb whole source
ohnny von Neumann a rather grandiose plan for computer-simulation of the explosion of a fission bomb
te on the blackboard in imitation of my handwriting; it said whole source
te on the blackboard in imitation of my handwriting; it said ‘fresh water for hippo.’ In consequence
ve looked a little more closely at both the available space whole source
ve looked a little more closely at both the available space on the numerical function table and also
progenitor of the RAND Corporation whole source
progenitor of the RAND Corporation
“Because of the very nature of the tables whole source
“Because of the very nature of the tables
“In a Monte Carlo problem the experimenter has complete cont whole source
“In a Monte Carlo problem the experimenter has complete control of his sampling procedure
1946 “ONCE IN MY LIFE I had a mathematical dream which prov whole source
1946 “ONCE IN MY LIFE I had a mathematical dream which proved correct
‘He smiles because he thinks I am childish whole source
‘He smiles because he thinks I am childish
who was born in Paris in 1918 and came to America as an exch whole source
who was born in Paris in 1918 and came to America as an exchange student in August 1938
with her birthplace certified as Post Office Box 1663 whole source
with her birthplace certified as Post Office Box 1663
the entire Theoretical Division had been reduced to eight pe whole source
the entire Theoretical Division had been reduced to eight people by 1946
Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists is founded whole source
and Hans Bethe formed the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists
“I think that there should never have been any hesitation whole source
“I think that there should never have been any hesitation
Metropolis and Richtmyer whole source
Metropolis and Richtmyer
5 review of the H-bomb’s development “The Work of Many Peopl whole source
5 review of the H-bomb’s development “The Work of Many People”—a genuine attempt to share the credit
The first meeting to discuss the implications of the new app whole source
The first meeting to discuss the implications of the new approach—which included Oppenheimer
“At the end of those 2 days we were all convinced whole source
“At the end of those 2 days we were all convinced
in 1949 was a tortured thing that you could well argue did n whole source
in 1949 was a tortured thing that you could well argue did not make a great deal of technical sense
8 successive + earnings whole source
8 successive + earnings
“Has anybody considered the following problem—which appears whole source
“Has anybody considered the following problem—which appears to me very pretty
“I discussed the cellular model with von Neumann in the late whole source
“I discussed the cellular model with von Neumann in the late 1940’s
Olivia Newton-John’s grandfather whole source
Olivia Newton-John’s grandfather
He studied mathematical physics under Enrico Fermi and becam whole source
He studied mathematical physics under Enrico Fermi and became a vocal critic of Mussolini
He lectured on Einstein’s theory of relativity at the Univer whole source
He lectured on Einstein’s theory of relativity at the University of Oslo
one could experiment with entities which whole source
one could experiment with entities which
Off!” is his last entry in the early morning of May 31 whole source
Off!” is his last entry in the early morning of May 31
w Barricelli in control of the computer for a total of eight whole source
w Barricelli in control of the computer for a total of eighteen shifts between midnight and 6:00 a.m
a truly efficient and economical organism is a combination o whole source
a truly efficient and economical organism is a combination of the ‘digital’ and ‘analogy’ principle
icelli evolved numerical organisms that learned to play a si whole source
icelli evolved numerical organisms that learned to play a simple but nontrivial game called “Tac-Tix
using the Atlas computer at Manchester University whole source
using the Atlas computer at Manchester University
Barricelli drew a parallel between computing and biology whole source
Barricelli drew a parallel between computing and biology
y in the solution of all sorts of new problems.… Judging by whole source
y in the solution of all sorts of new problems.… Judging by the achievements in the biological world
age and Technology of Their Own.” He saw natural and artific whole source
age and Technology of Their Own.” He saw natural and artificial intelligence as collective phenomena
1950 THE HISTORY OF DIGITAL computing can be divided into a whole source
1950 THE HISTORY OF DIGITAL computing can be divided into an Old Testament whose prophets
Alan Turing is born in London whole source
Alan Mathison Turing was born at Warrington Lodge
“Alan was interested in figures—not with any mathematical as whole source
“Alan was interested in figures—not with any mathematical association—before he could read
Turing gave Newman a draft of his paper in April of 1936 whole source
Turing gave Newman a draft of his paper in April of 1936
“I was disappointed by its reception here whole source
“I was disappointed by its reception here
“I remember reading Turing’s paper in the Trinity College li whole source
“I remember reading Turing’s paper in the Trinity College library in 1942
“I have just discovered a possible application of the kind o whole source
“I have just discovered a possible application of the kind of thing I am working on at present
German military adopts the Enigma machine whole source
The German navy changed its mind and adopted a modified version of the Enigma machine in 1926
Turing joins the Bletchley Park codebreakers whole source
Turing joined the Foreign Office’s Government Code and Cypher School
ENIAC is publicly unveiled whole source
The ENIAC was publicly unveiled in February of 1946
Turing was in the United States between November 1942 and Ma whole source
Turing was in the United States between November 1942 and March 1943
the Atlantic.” Jack Good remembers that upon Turing’s return whole source
the Atlantic.” Jack Good remembers that upon Turing’s return from the United States in March of 1943
Turing summarized the essence (and weakness) of this convolu whole source
Turing summarized the essence (and weakness) of this convoluted argument in 1947
while developing the Manchester Mark I (prototype for the Fe whole source
while developing the Manchester Mark I (prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1
“I asked him under what circumstances he would say that a ma whole source
“I asked him under what circumstances he would say that a machine is conscious
1962 “I REMEMBER one day walking out the back door of that whole source
1962 “I REMEMBER one day walking out the back door of that little brick building
“The actual machine that will be completed soon whole source
“The actual machine that will be completed soon
Von Neumann appointed to the Atomic Energy Commission whole source
When President Eisenhower appointed von Neumann to the Atomic Energy Commission in October 1954
f 1955 found Johnny and Klári settled into a small but comfo whole source
f 1955 found Johnny and Klári settled into a small but comfortable house in Georgetown in Washington
“I want to become independent of the regulated academic life whole source
“I want to become independent of the regulated academic life
into those things which can be better done by machines and t whole source
into those things which can be better done by machines and those which can be better done by humans
he large number of candidate cells waiting to participate in whole source
he large number of candidate cells waiting to participate in the computation at the next opportunity
We are back to where Julian Bigelow and Norbert Wiener left whole source
We are back to where Julian Bigelow and Norbert Wiener left off
codes were small enough to be completely debugged whole source
codes were small enough to be completely debugged
inuous computers.” For real-world questions—especially ambig whole source
inuous computers.” For real-world questions—especially ambiguous ones—analog computing can be faster
“If the only demerit of the digital expansion system were it whole source
“If the only demerit of the digital expansion system were its greater logical complexity
“The purely ‘digital’ procedure is probably more circumstant whole source
“The purely ‘digital’ procedure is probably more circumstantial and clumsy than necessary
and now the black serrated shape of a rocky island breaks th whole source
and now the black serrated shape of a rocky island breaks the line of the horizon
We look through their binoculars and discover a line of barr whole source
We look through their binoculars and discover a line of barren coast.”1 Thus begins Ape and Essence
rediscovering America from the West.”2 Huxley’s dystopian v whole source
rediscovering America from the West.”2 Huxley’s dystopian vision was published in 1948
McCulloch’s 1943 results on the powers—including Turing univ whole source
McCulloch’s 1943 results on the powers—including Turing universality—of what we now call neural nets
“There are a number of offspring of the Princeton machine whole source
“There are a number of offspring of the Princeton machine
el visited us rather steadily and took away designs and draw whole source
el visited us rather steadily and took away designs and drawings for duplicate machines.”15 In turn
Fermi poses his paradox at Los Alamos whole source
Enrico Fermi asked the question “Where is everybody?” at Los Alamos in 1950
from losing most of a foot to a Munich streetcar in 1928 whole source
from losing most of a foot to a Munich streetcar in 1928
whenever you visited one of the installations with a modern whole source
whenever you visited one of the installations with a modern mainframe computer
You immediately saw how you would write down sequences of st whole source
You immediately saw how you would write down sequences of statements to solve any particular problem
the high-explosive blockbusters of 1943 had become thermonuc whole source
the high-explosive blockbusters of 1943 had become thermonuclear weapons
has found by mathematical reasoning really occurs in nature whole source
has found by mathematical reasoning really occurs in nature … is a quite difficult and ambiguous one
computing machine is non-synchronous; that is whole source
computing machine is non-synchronous; that is
or nine times the speed of sound: Mach 9 whole source
or nine times the speed of sound: Mach 9
1966 VON NEUMANN MADE a deal with “the other party” in 1946 whole source
1966 VON NEUMANN MADE a deal with “the other party” in 1946
or perhaps a few times 10,000 whole source
or perhaps a few times 10,000
a computer with a billion transistors for the inflation-adju whole source
a computer with a billion transistors for the inflation-adjusted cost of a transistor radio in 1956
een logical function and strings of symbols is no longer the whole source
een logical function and strings of symbols is no longer the mathematical abstraction it was in 1936
has now expanded to billions of 64-floor hotels with billion whole source
has now expanded to billions of 64-floor hotels with billions of rooms
rst epoch in the digital era began with the introduction of whole source
rst epoch in the digital era began with the introduction of the random-access storage matrix in 1951
n the occasion of the sixtieth anniversary of von Neumann’s whole source
n the occasion of the sixtieth anniversary of von Neumann’s proposal to Lewis Strauss for the MANIAC
Turing’s 1950 comment about computers being “mansions for th whole source
Turing’s 1950 comment about computers being “mansions for the souls that He creates” came to mind
Julian Bigelow shuts down the IAS computer whole source
in the machine room at the end of Olden Lane
“Sic Transit Gloria Mundi.”1 After von Neumann left Princet whole source
“Sic Transit Gloria Mundi.”1 After von Neumann left Princeton for Washington in 1955
“which we never did anything with.”2 On February 29 whole source
“which we never did anything with.”2 On February 29
But when IAS astronomers sought to exercise this privilege whole source
But when IAS astronomers sought to exercise this privilege
ll the other groups trying to build a practical implementati whole source
ll the other groups trying to build a practical implementation of Turing’s Universal Machine in 1946
” von Neumann reported to Klári in November 1946 whole source
” von Neumann reported to Klári in November 1946
had little more to do with the Institute after his departure whole source
had little more to do with the Institute after his departure in 1939
“when he was through with it it was a complete separation.” whole source
“when he was through with it it was a complete separation.” In 1955
He doesn’t saw wood now but he does fish and take walks.”33 whole source
He doesn’t saw wood now but he does fish and take walks.”33 Vladimir Zworykin died in 1982
briefly on missile development at North American Aviation be whole source
briefly on missile development at North American Aviation before settling in at RAND in Santa Monica
“There was a clear but not formally stated understanding whole source
“There was a clear but not formally stated understanding
sing architecture to its redundancy—go back to RAND’s decisi whole source
sing architecture to its redundancy—go back to RAND’s decision to purchase eighty 256-bit Selectrons
Alan Turing receives the Order of the British Empire whole source
Alan Turing received the Order of the British Empire in 1946
Kennan gains oversight of US clandestine operations whole source
After leaving the National Physical Laboratory in 1948
Alan Turing convicted of gross indecency whole source
and ability to visit the United States
Ware, interview with Nancy Stern, January 19, 1981, CBI, cal whole source
Ware, interview with Nancy Stern, January 19, 1981, CBI, call no
Report written in August 1947, distributed March 27, 1958), whole source
Report written in August 1947, distributed March 27, 1958), p
Hans Bethe, “Energy Production in Stars,” Physics Today, Sep whole source
Hans Bethe, “Energy Production in Stars,” Physics Today, September 1968, p
3, part 2 (May 1958): 1 whole source
3, part 2 (May 1958): 1
documentary produced by the Mathematical Association of Amer whole source
documentary produced by the Mathematical Association of America
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1944 whole source
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1944
John von Neumann to Warren Weaver, November 2, 1945, RF; M whole source
John von Neumann to Warren Weaver, November 2, 1945, RF; M
Good in “Turing and the Computer,” Nature 307 (February 1, 1 whole source
Good in “Turing and the Computer,” Nature 307 (February 1, 1984): 663
Robert Oppenheimer, August 1, 1944, LA whole source
Robert Oppenheimer, August 1, 1944, LA
Boston: MIT Press, 1949 whole source
Boston: MIT Press, 1949
Louis Hagen. New York: Harper & Bros., 1956. Schmidt, George. whole source
New York: Doubleday, 1956
Jule Charney, “Conversations with George Platzman,” recorded whole source
Jule Charney, “Conversations with George Platzman,” recorded August 1980, in R
Frank Aydelotte to John von Neumann, June 5, 1947, IAS whole source
Frank Aydelotte to John von Neumann, June 5, 1947, IAS
Stapledon to Miller, December 26, 1917, in Crossley, ed., Ta whole source
Stapledon to Miller, December 26, 1917, in Crossley, ed., Talking Across the World, pp
Stapledon to Miller, January 12, 1918, in Crossley, ed., Tal whole source
Stapledon to Miller, January 12, 1918, in Crossley, ed., Talking Across the World, p
Los Alamos, N.M: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, April 9, whole source
Los Alamos, N.M: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, April 9, 1947
13; John von Neumann to Robert Richtmyer whole source
13; John von Neumann to Robert Richtmyer
“A Logical Coding System Applied to the ENIAC whole source
“A Logical Coding System Applied to the ENIAC
Stan Ulam to John von Neumann, November 9, 1952, VNLC whole source
Stan Ulam to John von Neumann, November 9, 1952, VNLC
George Gamow to Stan Ulam, July 20, 1953, SUAPS whole source
George Gamow to Stan Ulam, July 20, 1953, SUAPS
George Gamow to Stan Ulam, July 20, 1953, SUAPS whole source
Stan Ulam to George Gamow, July 20, 1953, SUAPS
Good to Sara Turing, December 9, 1956, AMT; Lyn Newman to An whole source
Good to Sara Turing, December 9, 1956, AMT; Lyn Newman to Antoinette Esher, June 24, 1949, AMT; I
Good, September 18, 1948, AMT whole source
Good, September 18, 1948, AMT
“Speculations on Perceptrons and Other Automata whole source
“Speculations on Perceptrons and Other Automata
for the period 1 July 1954 to 31 December 1956 whole source
for the period 1 July 1954 to 31 December 1956
“Institute for Advanced Study Electronic Computer Project Mo whole source
“Institute for Advanced Study Electronic Computer Project Monthly Progress Report
Leonard Carmichael, June 11, 1958, IAS whole source
Leonard Carmichael, June 11, 1958, IAS
14.1 Android (operating system) Anschluss (1938) whole source
14.1 Android (operating system) Anschluss (1938)
“problem” (ENIAC, 1947) binary, ack.1, 1.1, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, whole source
“problem” (ENIAC, 1947) binary, ack.1, 1.1, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 8.1, 13.1, 18.1 digital vs
9.2 as difference equations digital universe “artificially whole source
9.2 as difference equations digital universe “artificially created universe
“Electronic Computing Device” (Rajchman, 1943) “Electronic whole source
“Electronic Computing Device” (Rajchman, 1943) “Electronic Diff
10.1 “Mathematics and the Arts” (Morse whole source
10.1 “Mathematics and the Arts” (Morse
11.2 National Center for Atmospheric Research National Def whole source
11.2 National Center for Atmospheric Research National Defense Research Committee (NDRC)
Princeton University whole source
Princeton University
see Los Alamos; Manhattan Project “Proposed Electronic Calcu whole source
see Los Alamos; Manhattan Project “Proposed Electronic Calculator” (Turing
After the first successful atomic test in July 1945 in the deserts of New Mexico, J whole source
nuclear test, July 16, 1945
citizen (1937) marries Klára (Klári) Dan (1938) mission to whole source
citizen (1937) marries Klára (Klári) Dan (1938) mission to England during World War II (1943)
(1938) suicide of father (1939) pregnancy and miscarriage whole source
(1938) suicide of father (1939) pregnancy and miscarriage (1942) death
Princeton University whole source
Princeton University
The digital universe in 1953 whole source
The digital universe in 1953
A 32-by-32 array of charged spots—serving as working memory whole source
A 32-by-32 array of charged spots—serving as working memory
terminating at memory location 18,8 whole source
terminating at memory location 18,8
Princeton University Libraries whole source
Princeton University Libraries
Zworykin began working on the problem of television with Bor whole source
Zworykin began working on the problem of television with Boris Rosing in Russia in 1906
Shelby White and Leon Levy Archives Center, Institute for Ad whole source
Shelby White and Leon Levy Archives Center, Institute for Advanced Study
as pictured on her French driver’s license whole source
as pictured on her French driver’s license
Marina von Neumann Whitman whole source
Marina von Neumann Whitman
Darwin Among the Machines, 1997 whole source
Darwin Among the Machines, 1997