Events, Verisoph

1923 Beer-Hall Putsch ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the Beer-Hall Putsch of November 8, 1923, Hitler and Ludendorff tried to force Kahr and Lossow to continue a revolt. They were overcome by gunfire; Hitler was jailed and wrote Mein Kampf. ●●

1923 Primo de Rivera's military coup in Spain ai_extracted 1 cit. no story To block a parliamentary investigation into corruption and defeats in Morocco, a military coup under General Primo de Rivera, with King Alfonso XIII's acquiescence, took over the government in 1923, dissolving the Cortes and ending civil liberties. ●●

1923 Quigley links the post-1923 Conservative split to Milner-Cecil lines ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley suggests the split inside the Conservative Party after 1923 followed the division between the Milner Group and the older Cecil Bloc. He offers it as an interpretive claim. ●●

1923 Milner's Questions of the Hour (1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Milner set out unorthodox economic ideas in his 1923 book Questions of the Hour. Quigley says these ideas, favoring managed national economy over the gold standard, were far ahead of the Group's thinking. ●●

1923 Milner's Lords speech on Zionism (27 June 1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 27 June 1923 Milner set out the Group's view of Zionism in the House of Lords, backing a Jewish national home but insisting Palestine must never become a Jewish state. He favored an Arab Federation. ●●

1923 Chatham House acquired and named (1923) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1923 Curtis persuaded Colonel R. W. Leonard to buy Lord Kinnaird's house at 10 St. James Square for the Institute. Once William Pitt's home, it was named Chatham House, now a byword for the RIIA. ●●

1923 Quigley: Milner Group helps make Baldwin Prime Minister ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts the Milner Group worked behind the scenes to persuade the King to choose Baldwin over Curzon as Prime Minister in 1923, citing Harold Nicolson's account of Balfour, Amery, and Walter Long intervening. ●●

1923 Quigley: Curtis defends the balance of power at the RUA ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that Lionel Curtis, who in 1918 had condemned the balance of power, reversed himself by January 1923 and defended it against Professor Pollard, marking the Group's return to old power-politics thinking. ●●

1923 Smuts's South African Luncheon Club speech ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley calls this October 1923 speech in London the best single statement of the Milner Group's early revisionist and pro-German outlook, in which Smuts warned against French militarism. ●●

1923 France occupies the Ruhr ai_extracted 1 cit. no story French forces occupied the Ruhr to force reparations payments, enraging the Milner Group, which Quigley says threatened economic and diplomatic retaliation against France in The Round Table. ●●

1923 Quigley: Smuts opens contact with Stresemann ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that right after his October 1923 anti-French speech, Smuts got in touch with German foreign minister Stresemann, advising him to abandon non-cooperation, a line that Quigley says led toward the Dawes Plan and Locarno. ●●

1923 German Chancellor cites Smuts as his guide ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At a cabinet meeting Stresemann named Smuts as the author of what he considered the proper road out of the reparations crisis, evidence Quigley uses for the Group's reach into German policy. ●●

1923 Carl Brigham asserts Nordic superiority, 1923 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto quotes psychologist Carl Brigham, who in his 1923 book A Study of American Intelligence claimed to have demonstrated the intellectual superiority of the Nordic group. ●●

1923 E.G. Boring's circular definition of intelligence, 1923 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites E.G. Boring's 1923 definition that intelligence is what an intelligence test measures, as the classic behaviorist statement on intelligence. ●●

1923 Milner's desire to abandon the gold standard ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book says Lord Milner, described as the Network's primary leader, had written of wanting to abandon the gold standard as early as 1923. It uses this to argue the shift off gold served the Network rather than harming it. ●●

1923 French and Belgian troops occupy the Ruhr ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In early 1923, after Germany fell behind on reparations, forty thousand French and Belgian troops invaded and occupied the industrial Ruhr valley. The precipitating incident was a failure to deliver telephone poles. ●●

1923 The German hyperinflation reaches its peak ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1923 Germany suffered the greatest destruction of monetary value in history. A dollar worth 620,000 marks in August was worth 630 billion by early November. ●●

1923 German unemployment explodes as the currency dies ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1923 the collapse of the mark made commerce impossible and the economy reverted to barter. Unemployment, around 3 percent, suddenly jumped to 20 percent in the autumn of 1923. ●●

1923 Keynes publishes A Tract on Monetary Reform ai_extracted 2 cit. In December 1923, Keynes published A Tract on Monetary Reform, his first systematic attempt to explain the postwar monetary instability. Much of it had already appeared in the Manchester Guardian during 1922 and early 1923. ●●

1923 Fight over control of Fed open market operations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1923 the Federal Reserve Board tried to take charge of open market operations, the new tool of buying and selling government securities. Strong, recuperating in Colorado, was furious but eventually accepted Board oversight while still dominating decisions. ●●

1923 Schacht and Stresemann dine as Germany nears bankruptcy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On the night of November 8, 1923, banker Hjalmar Schacht met Chancellor Gustav Stresemann at Berlin's Hotel Continental. Stresemann sought to persuade Schacht to become currency commissioner and reform the collapsing German currency. ●●

1923 Hyperinflation bread riots in Berlin ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On November 5, 1923, the price of a two-kilo loaf of bread in Germany soared from 20 billion to 140 billion marks, sparking nationwide riots. Over a thousand shops were looted and Jewish Berliners were attacked by mobs. ●●

1923 Hitler's Beer Hall Putsch collapses ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Adolf Hitler, working with General Erich Ludendorff, seized a Munich beer hall and proclaimed the Berlin government deposed. The attempted coup, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, collapsed within twenty-four hours. ●●

1923 Introduction of the Rentenmark ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On November 15, 1923, Germany introduced the new Rentenmark, notionally backed by land, alongside the collapsed Reichsmark. The country briefly had two official currencies issued by two parallel central banks. ●●

1923 Schacht fixes the Rentenmark conversion rate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After waiting for the Reichsmark to sink further, Schacht fixed the conversion rate on November 20, 1923, at 1 trillion Reichsmarks to one Rentenmark. The delay let the government buy back its debt for a fraction of its value. ●●

1923 Death of Rudolf von Havenstein ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On November 20, 1923, the day Schacht fixed the new currency's conversion rate, Reichsbank president Rudolf von Havenstein collapsed and died of a heart attack after a late board meeting. He was sixty-six. ●●

1923 Schacht appointed president of the Reichsbank ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On December 20, 1923, over strong opposition from within the bank, Schacht was appointed president of the Reichsbank. His only rival was the discredited wartime treasury secretary Karl Helfferich. ●●

1923 Schacht meets Norman in London ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Schacht arrived in London on New Year's Eve 1923 to enlist Norman's help for Germany. Norman met him personally at Liverpool Street Station, beginning a close partnership between the two central bankers. ●●

1923 Reparations Commission appoints committees of experts ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On November 30, 1923, the Reparations Commission announced two international committees of experts. The first was to balance the German budget and stabilize the currency, the second to investigate German capital flight. ●●

1923 Dawes committee formed on German reparations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story So in late 1923, at the suggestion of Secretary of State Hughes, he appointed a committee of experts headed by Harding’s old budget director, Charles Dawes, to propose a plan to... ●●

1923 Great Kanto earthquake strikes Japan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 1 September 1923, a huge earthquake (7. ●●

1923 Stettinius shares GE insider information ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1923, Morgan partner Herman Harjes in Paris inquired about buying General Electric shares, and Stettinius hesitantly shared insider information he had gained from his position on GE's board of directors. ●●

1923 Morgan partners aid Japan earthquake relief ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Following a major earthquake in Japan, Morgan partners including Dwight Morrow became involved in relief efforts. Rumors circulated that Japan planned its first bond issue in America since the Russo-Japanese War. ●●

1923 Death of Charles Rothschild ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Charles Rothschild, designated to lead N.M. Rothschild after his father Natty's death, died in 1923 after contracting encephalitis lethargica from the Spanish influenza epidemic. ●●

1923 Stresemann succeeds Cuno as German chancellor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As Germany lurched toward civil war, Cuno fell in August 1923 and was replaced by Max’s hero, Gustav Stresemann, who immediately declared martial law. ●●

1923 Volkischer Beobachter attacks the Warburgs ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On February 22, 1923, the Nazi newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter, attacked Paul, Felix, and Max. ●●

1923 French and Belgian troops occupy the Ruhr ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In January 1923, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr, Germany’s industrial heartland, without consulting th ●●

c. 1923 The Colour Bar in Colonial Kenya 1 cit. Colonial Kenya operated an informal but pervasive colour bar that segregated residential areas, hospitals, schools, hotels, and railway carriages by race and reserved skilled jobs and higher pay for Europeans. Africans were excluded from the central highlands, from the settler-dominated economy's upper tiers, and from political representation, which was reserved for Europeans and, in limited form, Indians. This everyday racial hierarchy fed the grievances that organized African politics would later voice. politics / society ●●

1924 Reichsbank made independent after hyperinflation ai_extracted 1 cit. After the German hyperinflation of 1924 the Reichsbank was made independent from the government, leaving it free to impose credit controls as it wished; inflation had been brought under control by 1924. ●●●

1924 to 1930 Schacht's reign as Reichsbank president ai_extracted 1 cit. Hjalmar Schacht headed the Reichsbank from 1924 until his resignation in 1930, wielding credit controls so powerful that contemporaries called him a credit dictator and the Reichsbank Germany's second government. ●●●

August 1924 New banking law confirms Reichsbank independence ai_extracted 1 cit. In August 1924 a new banking law reconfirmed the Reichsbank's independence from the government while greatly increasing the influence of Germany's foreign creditors, with the bank under the control of the Wall Street-dominated Reparations Commission. ●●

1924 to 1931 Reichsbank credit tightening and credit crunch ai_extracted 1 cit. From the mid-1920s until 1933 the Reichsbank adopted highly restrictive policies, with a first phase of credit tightening between 1924 and 1926 followed by an even worse credit crunch in 1931, bankrupting thousands of firms. ●●●

26 May 1924 U.S. Immigration Act of 1924 enshrines eugenic quotas 2 cit. The Johnson-Reed Act set immigration quotas designed to favor northern Europeans, shaped by eugenicists who claimed some nationalities were biologically inferior. The law later trapped refugees, including Jews fleeing Nazi Germany. politics / society ●●

1924 Treaty of Rome awards Fiume to Italy (January 1924) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The long dispute over Fiume was finally settled by the Treaty of Rome of January 1924, granting the city to Italy while giving Yugoslavia a suburb and a harbor lease. ●●

1924 Dawes Plan restructures reparations (1924) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley describes the Dawes Plan of 1924 as largely a J. P. Morgan production, drawn up by financial experts under Charles G. Dawes, that financed reparations through profitable foreign loans. ●●

1924 Dawes Plan rebuilds German industry, 1924-1929 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Using foreign loans provided under the Dawes Plan, Germany rebuilt its industrial structure between 1924 and 1929. By the time the depression arrived it had the most efficient industrial machine in Europe. ●●

1924 The forged Zinoviev Letter and the 1924 election ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Four days before the 1924 election, Foreign Office officials issued the forged Zinoviev Letter calling on Britons to support revolution for the Third International. It helped hand the Conservatives their largest majority in years. ●●

1924 Quigley: Croly's biography reveals Straight's aims ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley argues that Herbert Croly's 1924 biography of Willard Straight shows Straight was no liberal but a typical international banker using The New Republic to advance banker designs. ●●

1924 Institute of Pacific Relations founded, Atlantic City (Sept 1924) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Institute of Pacific Relations was founded at Atlantic City in September 1924 to study the Pacific Basin. Quigley says its British and Dominion representatives were closely tied to the Milner Group. ●●

1924 Birkenhead becomes Secretary of State for India (Nov 1924) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Lord Birkenhead obtained the India Office in November 1924, as Amery went to the Colonial Office. Quigley describes poor relations between Birkenhead and the Milner and Cecil groups. ●●

1924 General Morgan publishes his warning about German rearmament ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Brigadier General J. H. Morgan, who had warned officials of continued German military power, went public with a Quarterly Review article in October 1924. Quigley notes the Milner Group ignored such warnings. ●●

1924 The Dawes Plan and the Young Plan on reparations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The two great reparations settlements were dominated by J. P. Morgan and Company, but Quigley notes the Milner Group supplied half the British delegation to the Dawes Committee. ●●

1924 French efforts to strengthen the League: Draft Treaty and Geneva Protocol ai_extracted 1 cit. no story France and its allies tried to close the gaps in the Covenant through the Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance and the Geneva Protocol. Quigley says the Milner Group denounced both in The Round Table. ●●

1924 The Dawes Plan loans to Germany ai_extracted 3 cit. The book quotes Quigley describing the Dawes Plan of 1924 to 1929, largely a J. P. Morgan production, under which Germany borrowed and owed more at the end than the start. It frames this as a debt trap that rebuilt German industry. ●●

1924 Britain blocks the Geneva Protocol ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book says Britain, at the Network's behest, blocked the Geneva Protocol in 1924, sparking worldwide outrage. It argues the Network then turned that outrage to its advantage through the Locarno Pacts. ●●

1924 First meeting of the Dawes Committee ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 14, 1924, the ten-man committee of experts led by Charles Dawes and Owen Young held its first meeting at the Reparations Commission's offices in Paris to devise a workable reparations plan. ●●

1924 The franc plunges as the Dawes Committee opens ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 14, 1924, the same day the Dawes Committee began work, the franc lost about 10 percent of its value in a single day. It kept falling through early March, reaching 27 to the dollar. ●●

1924 J. P. Morgan lends France $100 million ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On March 13, 1924, the French government announced a $100 million loan from J. P. Morgan & Co. secured on its gold. The announcement alone reversed the franc's slide, driving it from 29 back to 18 to the dollar. ●●

1924 The Dawes Plan is issued ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On April 9, 1924, the committee issued the Dawes Plan. It set graduated annual reparations payments, created an agent-general to protect the mark, and called for a $200 million foreign loan to Germany. ●●

1924 London Conference to implement the Dawes Plan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In July 1924 the Allies convened in London to implement the Dawes Plan, the greatest gathering of statesmen since the 1919 Peace Conference. Bankers Montagu Norman and Thomas Lamont became the central figures. ●●

1924 First Franco-German heads of government meeting since 1870 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The London Conference's first plenary session on August 5, 1924, was the first formal meeting between the heads of the German and French governments since the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. ●●

1924 Germany accepts the Dawes Plan terms ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On August 14, 1924, the final terms were put to the German delegation, who deliberated all night at the Ritz. Only Schacht opposed acceptance, but Stresemann insisted Germany accept to free the Ruhr and the Rhineland. ●●

1924 Conservative landslide returns Baldwin to power ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In November 1924, anti-communist sentiment fueled by the fraudulent Zinoviev letter linking Labor to the Soviet Union produced a Conservative landslide. Stanley Baldwin returned as prime minister. ●●

1924 Churchill appointed chancellor of the exchequer ai_extracted 1 cit. no story To general surprise, Baldwin appointed Winston Churchill chancellor of the exchequer, the second most powerful post in government. Churchill had twice changed parties and knew little about finance. ●●

1924 Norman travels to New York to consult Strong on gold ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Norman arrived in New York in late December 1924 to consult Strong about Britain's return to gold. His trip provoked speculation despite his attempts to slip out of Britain unnoticed. ●●

1924 House of Morgan issues the Dawes Loan ai_extracted 2 cit. The House of Morgan participated in issuing the Dawes Loan in 1924, which later became central to debt negotiations with Hitler's Germany. ●●

1924 Aby Warburg commissions the Warburg Library building ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1924, Aby awarded the contract for an adjoining Warburg Library to architect Fritz Schumacher, who then passed on the project to Gerhard Langmaack. ●●

1924 Austen Chamberlain becomes British foreign secretary ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ’s Western border when Chamberlain replaced the more pro-German Lord Curzon as foreign secretary in 1924. Austen Chamberlain was the scion of a distin ●●

1924 Congress names Laughlin a federal eugenics agent ai_extracted 1 cit. no story rees that could be judged worthy or unworthy of continued existence on earth. Congress had christened Laughlin a “federal eugenics agent” during immigration control hearings that helped establish the 1924 National Origins Act. As a consequence, Laughlin designed the ethnic and genetic formulas that ●●

1924 Dawes Committee convenes in Paris on reparations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Stresemann’s first success was the Dawes Committee, which met in Paris in 1924 to establish a workable system through which Germany could pay reparations without jeopardizing its financial stability.'® The chairman of the Committee was General Charle ●●

1924 Hollerith's company becomes IBM ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After a series of mergers, Herman Hollerith's tabulating-machine company becomes the International Business Machines Corporation. ●●

1924 Britain assumes the Rhodesias from the BSAC ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The company's monopoly administrative rights in Northern and Southern Rhodesia passed to the British government, though it kept lucrative mineral rights for decades afterward. ●●

1924 The Kikuyu Central Association Takes Up the Land 5 cit. The Kikuyu Central Association, formed in 1924, campaigned against land alienation, the kipande, and forced labour and demanded title to the highlands and a voice for Africans. From 1928 a young Johnstone Kamau, later Jomo Kenyatta, served as its secretary and carried its case to London. The KCA gave the dispossessed a political voice against both the settlers and the government chiefs, and it prefigured the land-centred nationalism that Mau Mau would later drive further. politics / society ●●●

1924 Stoneham Museum opens in Kitale 2 cit. The Stoneham Museum, later Kitale Museum, opened to the public in Kitale as Kenya's first domestic museum. Its collections grew from Colonel Hugh Stoneham's natural-history and ethnographic collecting and later entered the National Museums of Kenya network. culture / science ●●

2 September 1924 Daniel arap Moi is born into a Tugen herding family at Sacho 2 cit. Daniel Toroitich arap Moi was born on 2 September 1924 in the Sacho/Kurieng'wo area of Baringo. The secure core across the sources is that he was Tugen, from a Sot-clan herding family, and not born into the large settler or central-Kenya loyalist elite. Official pages vary in how they present his mother's name, so the story should keep the family claim narrow: Baringo, herding household, father Kimoi arap Chebii, and an early life close to livestock. politics / society ●●●

3 January 1925 Mussolini proclaims dictatorship 1 cit. In a speech to parliament after the Matteotti murder crisis, Mussolini takes responsibility for fascist violence and announces he will rule by force. Italy becomes a one-party dictatorship over the following two years. politics ●●●

18 July 1925 Publication of Mein Kampf 1 cit. Hitler publishes the first volume of Mein Kampf, written during his imprisonment after the Beer Hall Putsch. The book lays out his racial ideology, antisemitism, and plans for German expansion. politics ●●●

November 1925 Fascist Italy bans Freemasonry 1 cit. Mussolini's government outlawed Freemasonry in 1925, viewing the lodges as rival centers of loyalty. Members were purged and lodge property seized. politics / religion ●●

July 1925 Keynes attacks the return to gold 1 cit. John Maynard Keynes published The Economic Consequences of Mr. Churchill, arguing the overvalued pound would force wage cuts and unemployment. His warning proved accurate as British industry struggled through the late 1920s. economy / politics ●●

1925 Locarno Pacts embody British 'divisible peace' (1925) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley calls the Locarno Pacts of 1925 the first concrete achievement of the British view that peace in western and eastern Europe were separate, guaranteeing only the Rhine frontier. ●●

1925 Churchill returns Britain to the gold standard ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Chancellor Winston Churchill judged Britain's price level by the pound-dollar exchange rate and returned to gold at the prewar parity of $4.86. Quigley argues sterling was thereby overvalued, isolating Britain on a high price plateau. ●●

1925 British Gold Standard Act of 1925 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Gold Standard Act of May 1925 allowed notes to be exchanged only for bullion, and only in large amounts. Quigley notes this made the restored gold standard quite different from that of 1914. ●●

1925 Hindenburg elected president of Germany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On the second ballot in 1925 Hindenburg was elected president with 14,655,766 votes against Marx's 13,751,615. Quigley calls his victory a fatal blow to the republic. ●●

1925 Italian dictatorship, lira stabilization, and corporative state ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley traces the resumed trend toward greater income disparity in Italy through the dictatorship of 1925, the stabilization of the lira in 1927, and the creation of the corporative state in 1934. ●●

1925 Milner dies (May 1925) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Lord Milner died in May 1925. Quigley quotes The Times obituary crediting him with the Imperial War Cabinet and a lasting advance in the constitutional evolution of the Empire. ●●

1925 Stevenson endows the Survey and a London chair (1925) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story From 1925 Sir Daniel Stevenson's endowment of 20,000 pounds financed the Survey of International Affairs and a Research Chair of International History at London. Toynbee held both the chair and the editorship. ●●

1925 Secret committee nominates Milner for Oxford Chancellor (April 1925) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley recounts that in April 1925 a secret, unofficial committee of Milner Group and Cecil Bloc members nominated Milner for Chancellor of Oxford University, drawing an angry protest from Birkenhead. ●●

1925 Austen Chamberlain rejects the Geneva Protocol ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Britain officially rejected the Geneva Protocol at the League Council. Quigley says Curtis, Kerr, and other Group members went to Geneva for the occasion, and that the rejection followed the Committee of Imperial Defence's advice. ●●

1925 Hitler publishes Mein Kampf ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Adolf Hitler declared his intentions in his 1925 book Mein Kampf, which was largely ignored at the time. Wood uses the arc of Hitler's rise as an analogy for how a technocratic dictatorship might be declared once its pieces are in place. ●●

1925 John Watson publishes Behaviorism, 1925 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto quotes the closing appeal of John Watson's 1925 book Behaviorism, urging parents to raise children in 'behavioristic freedom.' ●●

1925 Institute of Pacific Relations created ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book asserts the Network created the Institute of Pacific Relations in 1925 and links its founding to the outbreak of the Chinese civil war. This is presented as the book's conjecture about Network motives. ●●

1925 Charles Dawes awarded the Nobel Peace Prize ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Dawes Plan catapulted Charles Dawes to fame; he was elected U.S. vice president in 1924. For buying time for Europe and creating the illusion that its money battles were over, he received the 1925 Nobel Peace Prize. ●●

1925 Beaverbrook lobbies Churchill against gold ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 28, 1925, press baron Lord Beaverbrook came to argue against returning to gold, but Treasury officials dismissed him. The next day he launched a front-page campaign against the gold standard in the Daily Express. ●●

1925 American credits pledged to support Britain's return to gold ai_extracted 1 cit. no story To ensure Britain had reserves to defend the pound on gold, Strong promised $200 million from the New York Fed and Morgan partners tentatively committed a further $300 million. The sole condition was that Norman remain governor. ●●

1925 Churchill's Downing Street dinner on the gold decision ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On March 17, 1925, Churchill convened a dinner at 11 Downing Street pitting gold standard advocates Niemeyer and Bradbury against opponents McKenna and Keynes. No one changed his mind, but the gold advocates prevailed. ●●

1925 Churchill announces Britain's return to the gold standard ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On April 28, 1925, Churchill rose in the Commons and announced Britain's return to the gold standard at the prewar parity. Norman watched from the gallery, savoring what London saw as his personal triumph. ●●

1925 The Banque de France 'faux bilans' scandal ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In April 1925 the French public learned that Banque de France and Treasury officials had for a year falsified the bank's books to disguise illegal note issuance. The scandal brought down the Herriot government. ●●

1925 Caillaux returns as French finance minister ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In April 1925 Paul Painlevé formed a left-wing coalition and named Joseph Caillaux finance minister. Caillaux, once imprisoned for endangering state security, was a legendary and controversial figure in public finance. ●●

1925 Caillaux and Churchill restructure the French war debt ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In July 1925 Caillaux went to London and struck a deal with Churchill to restructure France's war debt to Britain at 40 cents on the dollar, cutting it from $3 billion to $1.2 billion. ●●

1925 The Coolidge bull market ai_extracted 1 cit. no story From 1922, low inflation and surging corporate profits powered a stock boom. After Calvin Coolidge's reelection in 1924, the Dow's rise from a 1921 low of 67 to above 150 acquired the name the Coolidge bull market. ●●