Events, Verisoph

c. 1928 Moi's father dies and Tuitoek becomes his guardian 3 cit. Moi's father died while Moi was still a child. Sources disagree on whether Moi was about two or four, but they agree that his older brother Tuitoek took a guardian role and that Moi's childhood remained tied to a poor herding household rather than a wealthy colonial patron family. society ●●

1928 Pyrethrum joins the settler cash-crop basket 1 cit. Pyrethrum cultivation was introduced in Kenya in 1928 and became another highland cash crop. Like coffee and tea, it depended on altitude, land control, regulated marketing and state boards. It made the highlands more valuable and tightened the link between agriculture, title, labour and export revenue. economy / politics ●●●

1929 New York stock market crash of 1929 ai_extracted 2 cit. The 1929 New York stock market crash had borderless fallout: distressed banks worldwide withdrew loans, bankrupting much of the corporate sector and producing deflation and mass unemployment, which cast doubt on the capitalist paradigm. ●●●●●

1929 U.S. deposit withdrawals throw Germany into depression ai_extracted 1 cit. After the U.S. credit crunch that began in 1929, U.S. banks pulled their deposits from German banks and the Reichsbank made banks call in loans to German industry, forcing firm closures, mass unemployment, and Germany's plunge into the Great Depression. ●●●●

1929 The world abandons the gold standard, 1929-1936 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Between 1929 and 1936 the countries of the world went off gold, preferring to balance international payments through fluctuating exchange rates rather than domestic price deflation. ●●

1929 Young Plan and Bank for International Settlements (1929) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Young Plan, named after Morgan agent Owen D. Young and drawn up in 1929, set a 59-year reparations schedule and established the Bank for International Settlements at Basle as a central bankers' bank. ●●

1929 Wall Street crash opens the decade of destruction (October 1929) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley marks the New York stock market crash of October 1929 as ending the decade of reconstruction and cutting off the American loans that let Germany appear to pay reparations. ●●

1929 Bank for International Settlements created ai_extracted 1 cit. no story To help manage payments among the era's several financial centers, the Bank for International Settlements was created in 1929. ●●

1929 The Hatry Case triggers the Wall Street collapse ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On September 26, 1929, a minor financial panic in London (the Hatry Case) led the Bank of England to raise its rate sharply. British funds left Wall Street and the overinflated market began to sag. ●●

1929 Merger of Deutsche Bank and Disconto Gesellschaft ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley illustrates German banking control of industry through interlocking directorates. In 1929 the merged Deutsche Bank and Disconto Gesellschaft held directorships in 660 industrial firms. ●●

1929 The great depression of 1929-1934 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley argues the automatic economic process failed to stabilize during the great depression of 1929-1934 because income disparity was so wide that much of the population would have been driven to want before savings fell to the level of investment. ●●

1929 Rhodes House opens at Oxford ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When Rhodes House opened in 1929, colonial-history books were moved there from the Bodleian. The Beit Professor was given an office and lecture hall in the new building. ●●

1929 Irwin announces the Round Table Conference and Dominion status (31 Oct 1929) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Lord Irwin's announcement in India on 31 October 1929 of a Round Table Conference and the goal of Dominion status brought a storm of protest in England from Liberals and Conservatives alike. ●●

1929 Gatto's grandfather ruined in the 1929 crash ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto recalls that his grandfather Pappy was financially wiped out in the 1929 stock market crash, which shamed his mother about the family's reduced circumstances. ●●

1929 Gatto's mother graduates high school in 1929 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto's mother graduated from Monongahela High as a cheerleader in 1929, a few months before the market crash that ruined the family. ●●

1929 David Starr Jordan publishes Your Family Tree, 1929 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that as late as 1929 Stanford president David Starr Jordan published Your Family Tree, tracing American industrialists' descent from Aryan royal houses. ●●

1929 Turkey adopts a new alphabet under Ataturk ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto describes Kemal Ataturk's alphabet reform in Turkey, stating that from 1929 on all books, newspapers, and schooling used the new alphabet. He argues it cut a generation off from the classics of Persia, Arabia, and Turkey. ●●

1929 Stock market crash of 1929 and the Great Depression ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book asserts Federal Reserve money flowed into stocks, inflated the 1920s bubble, and led to the 1929 crash and the Great Depression. It presents this as further altering the life of an entire people. ●●

1929 Paul Warburg warns of coming collapse ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On March 8, 1929, Paul Warburg, a founder of the Federal Reserve System, issued a public warning that speculative overexpansion would end in distress and a general depression. He was accused of undermining American prosperity. ●●

1929 Raskob's “Everyone Ought to Be Rich” published ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In August 1929, former General Motors treasurer John J. Raskob published a manifesto in the Ladies' Home Journal urging ordinary people to invest in stocks. It captured the popular mania just before the crash. ●●

1929 Coolidge calls stocks “cheap” ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In February 1929, as he prepared to leave office, President Calvin Coolidge publicly declared that stocks were cheap and conditions sound. The remark undercut efforts to cool the speculative bubble. ●●

1929 Norman urges the Fed to break the market ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Montagu Norman arrived in New York on January 27, 1929, and pressed the Federal Reserve to raise U.S. rates sharply to prostrate the stock market. The scheme assumed a boom could be pricked without harming the economy. ●●

1929 Federal Reserve Board's “direct action” directive ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On February 2, 1929, the Federal Reserve Board directed member banks not to borrow from the Fed to make or maintain speculative loans. Made public four days later, it briefly dented the market before it recovered. ●●

1929 Charlie Mitchell defies the Fed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the end of March 1929, National City Bank chief Charles Mitchell, himself a New York Fed director, publicly pledged $25 million into brokers' loans to prop up the market. The move destroyed what credibility the Fed had left. ●●

1929 Germany slips into recession ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The drying up of American credit, drawn home by the U.S. stock bubble, together with weak business confidence, drove Germany into recession in early 1929. It came just as reparations payments were set to rise. ●●

1929 Allies agree to a new reparations conference ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By late 1928 Gilbert had persuaded the Allies to convene a conference in Paris in February 1929 to settle Germany's reparations once and for all. It became the Young Conference. ●●

1929 The Young Conference opens in Paris ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On February 11, 1929, the reparations conference chaired by Owen Young opened at the Hotel George V in Paris. It brought together delegates from the Allied powers, Germany, and others to revise Germany's payments. ●●

1929 Schacht opens with a low reparations offer ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On the second day of the Young Conference, Reichsbank president Hjalmar Schacht offered $250 million a year for thirty-seven years. France demanded far more, exposing a huge gap between the sides. ●●

1929 Young Plan creates the Bank for International Settlements ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Young Conference's compromise set up the Bank for International Settlements, jointly owned by the major central banks, to administer and securitize Germany's reparations payments. It became a permanent club for central bankers. ●●

1929 Run on German gold forces Reichsbank rate hike ai_extracted 1 cit. no story During the Young Plan talks Germany suddenly lost $100 million in gold in ten days, forcing the Reichsbank to raise rates to 7.5 percent despite deep recession and two million unemployed. Schacht blamed a French-orchestrated raid. ●●

1929 Keynes predicts the Young Plan will fail ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John Maynard Keynes dismissed the newly agreed Young Plan, predicting it would not prove workable and forecasting a crisis in 1930. The prophecy proved close to the mark. ●●

1929 Bank of England raises rates as gold drains ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In February 1929 the Bank of England lifted its rate a full point to 5.5 percent to defend sterling, despite unemployment above 1.5 million. Money was being pulled toward Wall Street's high returns. ●●

1929 Fed raises discount rate to 6 percent ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On August 8, 1929, the New York Fed raised its discount rate from 5 to 6 percent. The Dow fell 15 points the next day, its largest daily decline yet, but recouped the losses within a day. ●●

1929 The Dow tops out ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Dow reached its peak on September 3, 1929, yet only 19 of 826 listed stocks hit all-time highs that day. The market's advance had narrowed to a handful of glamour stocks. ●●

1929 Labour wins power; Snowden replaces Churchill ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In June 1929 British voters ousted the Conservatives and installed a minority Labour government. Philip Snowden, a bitter critic of France, replaced Churchill as chancellor of the exchequer. ●●

1929 Snowden clashes with France at The Hague ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the August 1929 Hague conference finalizing the Young Plan, Chancellor Snowden called the French finance minister's arguments “ridiculous and grotesque.” The insult severely strained Anglo-French relations. ●●

1929 Dow closes at record high of 381 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On September 3, 1929, the Dow closed at a record 381. Few realized it marked the top of the great bull market. ●●

1929 Roger Babson forecasts a crash ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On September 5, 1929, forecaster Roger Babson told a Massachusetts business conference that a terrific crash was coming and would bring a serious depression. The Dow fell about 3 percent that afternoon. ●●

1929 Collapse of Clarence Hatry's empire ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On September 19, 1929, the business empire of British financier Clarence Hatry collapsed with about $70 million in losses. The failure forced British investors to liquidate U.S. holdings, adding pressure to Wall Street. ●●

1929 Irving Fisher's “permanently high plateau” ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On October 15, 1929, Yale economist Irving Fisher declared that stocks had reached a permanently high plateau. The forecast became famous for its spectacularly bad timing. ●●

1929 Black Thursday and Lamont's “little distress selling” ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On Black Thursday, October 24, 1929, a flood of sell orders triggered the first true panic. Morgan partner Thomas Lamont downplayed it as “a little distress selling,” a phrase that became a byword for Wall Street self-delusion. ●●

1929 Black Monday ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On Black Monday, October 28, 1929, the Dow fell 40 points, about 14 percent, the largest single-day percentage drop in its history. Some $14 billion was wiped off U.S. stock values. ●●

1929 Black Tuesday ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On Black Tuesday, October 29, 1929, selling continued unabated as over 16 million shares changed hands. The New York Fed injected tens of millions to steady the banking system. ●●

1929 Harrison insists the exchange stay open ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As bankers debated closing the stock exchange during the crash, New York Fed governor George Harrison insisted it stay open and pledged to supply all needed reserve funds. He had the city banks absorb brokers' loans to prevent a meltdown. ●●

1929 First major crash without a bank failure ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Though the October 1929 crash was the most severe of the many panics since 1869, it was the first to occur without a major bank or business failure. Harrison's swift injections of cash forestalled a banking crisis. ●●

1929 Macmillan Committee established ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In November 1929 the Labour government appointed the Macmillan Committee under Lord Macmillan to investigate British banking and its poor economic performance. Its members included Keynes and other critics of the gold standard. ●●

1929 Death of Gustav Stresemann ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In October 1929, three weeks before the Wall Street crash, German foreign minister Gustav Stresemann died of a stroke at fifty-one. His death removed Schacht's protector and a pillar of German democracy. ●●

1929 Schacht's public attack on the government ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On December 5, 1929, Schacht issued a public statement accusing the German government of twisting the Young Plan and mismanaging its finances. The open declaration of war by the central bank chief threatened chaos. ●●

1929 The Wall Street bubble bursts ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1927 the Fed was torn between propping up Europe and curbing Wall Street speculation, and achieved neither. In the last week of October 1929 the bubble burst, plunging the United States into recession. ●●

1929 Stalin orders total collectivization of agriculture ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In late 1929, Stalin made the decision to force total collectivization of agriculture. This decision emerged directly from the state's desperate struggle to seize grain and grain supplies from the peasantry. ●●

1929 Black Thursday stock market crash ai_extracted 2 cit. no story On what became known as Black Thursday in 1929, the New York Stock Exchange experienced catastrophic losses as almost $10 billion was lost on paper within the first two hours of trading. Winston Churchill watched from the visitors' gallery as the market collapsed. ●●

1929 Irving Fisher calls crash a buying opportunity ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the 1929 stock market crash, economist Irving Fisher argued that weak investors had been shaken from the market, leaving shares in stronger hands. He described the postcrash market as a bargain counter for shrewd investors. ●●

1929 Death of art historian Aby Warburg ai_extracted 1 cit. no story He died two days after the start of the 1929 Wall Street crash, which would shatter the false prosperity of the 1920s and usher in a world as murky and ominous as anything in Aby’s most tormented dreams. ●●

1929 Britain limits Jewish immigration to Palestine ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When Hexter asked Felix if relief money could be used to arm Jewish settlers, “He said no, very firmly,” according to Hexter.44 The 1929 Arab riots created a split in the British government over Zionism, and the following spring the British temporarily limited Jewish immigration to Palestine. ●●

1929 Ernst Cassirer becomes first Jewish rector in Germany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1929 Ernst Cassirer rose to become its rector—the first Jew to achieve that distinction in Germany. ●●

1929 Einstein's unified field theory paper released ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 30, 1929, the Prussian Academy released Einstein's unified field theory paper. The first thousand copies sold promptly, and three thousand more were printed. One set of pages was pasted in the window of a London department store. ●●

1929 Light's Golden Jubilee stages a tribute to Edison ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1929 Bernays organized Light's Golden Jubilee, a celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of Edison's light bulb featuring Thomas Edison and Henry Ford. Editor Mark Crispin Miller notes the event was in fact propaganda for General Electric and its National Electric Light Association. ●●

1929 Standard Oil and IG Farben share synthetic-fuel patents 1 cit. Standard Oil of New Jersey and IG Farben struck agreements pooling patents and research on synthetic fuel and rubber. The ties continued into the late 1930s and drew sharp scrutiny in the United States during the war, when critics said they had slowed American synthetic-rubber development. The cooperation is documented in the companies' own records and later Senate hearings. economy / technology ●●●

c. 1930 The Great Depression and the Fed's inaction ai_extracted 1 cit. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the U.S. Federal Reserve failed for almost a decade to take the policies needed for recovery, watching as tens of thousands of banks went bankrupt with the savings of ordinary citizens. ●●●●

1930 Rhineland military occupation ended early (1930) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Allied military occupation of the Rhineland and bridgeheads was ended in 1930, five years ahead of schedule, which Quigley says made it possible for Hitler to remilitarize the zone. ●●

1930 Quigley: financial capitalism aimed to control the world's politics ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley argues that the powers of financial capitalism aimed to create a world system of financial control in private hands, controlled by central banks acting in concert through the Bank for International Settlements. ●●

1930 US foreign lending masks economic maladjustment, 1920-1931 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley argues America's huge overseas lending, nearly ten billion dollars in 1920-1931, concealed the underlying maladjustments of the world economy. It let debtor nations buy American goods without shipping goods back. ●●

1930 Forced collectivization of Soviet agriculture ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Collectivization was pushed violently into full operation in 1930; in six weeks collective farms roughly doubled. Peasants who resisted were beaten, exiled, or killed. ●●

1930 Bruning becomes chancellor by decree ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In March 1930 the Center broke the coalition over unemployment benefits, the Socialists were expelled, and Heinrich Bruning became chancellor. Lacking a majority, he governed by presidential decree, ending the Weimar Republic in practice. ●●

1930 Deliberate destruction of goods to fight depression ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley notes that the outright destruction of already-produced goods first appeared as a method of combating depression in 1930-1934, when coffee, sugar and bananas were destroyed, corn plowed under, and livestock slaughtered. ●●

1930 Quigley: J. P. Morgan and the 'American Establishment' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that from the 1880s to the 1930s American public life was dominated by a Wall Street group led by J. P. Morgan and Company: cosmopolitan, Anglophile, and Ivy League. ●●

1930 Protest against the 1930 Palestine White Paper ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Baldwin, Austen Chamberlain and Amery protested the anti-Zionist White Paper in a letter to The Times on 30 October 1930, and Smuts and Simon also objected. MacDonald then softened its interpretation. ●●

1930 Quigley: Round Table articles justify concessions to India (1930) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley says the Group's reasoning that trust breeds worthy conduct ran through The Round Table's India articles of September 1930 and March 1931, which urged giving Indians equal responsibility at the coming conference. ●●

1930 First session of the Round Table Conference (Nov 1930) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The first session of the Indian Round Table Conference was called for November 1930. Quigley says it was an innovation for treating the Indian States and British India within one framework. ●●

1930 Rhineland evacuated five years early ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Allied troops left the Rhineland in 1930 rather than 1935, a concession Quigley ties to the Young Plan and to the Milner Group's revisionist aims. ●●

1930 Technocracy movement begins in the early 1930s ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Wood dates the origin of the Technocracy movement to the early 1930s. He argues it opposes core American institutions. ●●

1930 California eugenics sterilizations peak in the 1930s ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Wood notes that in California, where Technocracy, Inc. had its largest support, over 20,000 people were forcibly sterilized as 'defective' during the 1930s eugenics heyday. ●●

1930 Debut of the Dick and Jane pre-primer ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites the original 1930 Dick and Jane pre-primer, which taught 68 sight words across 39 pages, marking the whole-word method's entry into mass schooling. ●●

1930 United States still had 144,102 local school boards in 1930 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto reports that in 1930 the nation still had 144,102 local school boards, part of his argument that citizen control of schooling was later consolidated away. ●●

1930 Watson claims he can train any infant, 1930 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto quotes John Watson's 1930 boast that, given a dozen healthy infants and his own world to raise them in, he could train any to become any type of specialist regardless of talent or ancestry. ●●

1930 White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, 1930 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto describes the 1930 White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, where twelve hundred experts focused on eliminating failure from schooling. ●●

1930 Mellon's “liquidate” doctrine ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon refused to prop up the economy, arguing the best policy was to liquidate labor, stocks, farmers, and real estate. He believed the downturn should be allowed to purge the excesses of the boom. ●●

1930 Fed eases sharply after the crash ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Between November 1929 and June 1930 the Fed cut rates from 6 to 2.5 percent and injected roughly $500 million into the banking system, largely at Harrison's initiative. The Washington Board resisted the aggressive easing. ●●

1930 Eugene Meyer appointed to head the Fed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In September 1930 Roy Young resigned as chairman of the Federal Reserve Board, and Hoover appointed the financier Eugene Meyer, who favored an activist, expansionary policy. Meyer soon found himself overwhelmed by the Board's dysfunction. ●●

1930 Norman's “I have instincts” testimony ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Testifying to the Macmillan Committee in early 1930, Montagu Norman proved a poor witness and, pressed for his reasons, replied that he had none, only instincts. The performance damaged his standing. ●●

1930 Central banks cut rates in unison ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By June 1930, with the pull of Wall Street gone, central banks eased together: U.S. rates hit a postwar low of 2.5 percent, the Bank of England 3.5, the Reichsbank 4.5, and the Banque de France 2.5. Money became freely available again. ●●

1930 Keynes publishes “The Great Slump of 1930” ai_extracted 2 cit. In December 1930 Keynes published “The Great Slump of 1930,” calling it one of the greatest economic catastrophes in modern history. He still hoped resolute central-bank action could restart the stalled economy. ●●

1930 Smoot-Hawley tariff imposed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In June 1930 the United States raised import tariffs through the Smoot-Hawley Act, shrinking demand for European goods. With U.S. capital bottled up at home, Europe could only settle its debts in gold. ●●

1930 France's gold mountain ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By the end of 1930 the Banque de France had amassed over $2 billion in gold, three times the Bank of England's reserves, plus $1 billion in foreign deposits. Its hoarding starved the rest of the world of reserves. ●●

1930 Moreau resigns from the Banque de France ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In September 1930 Emile Moreau resigned as governor of the Banque de France, moving to private banking after presiding over the franc's recovery. His deputy Clement Moret succeeded him, keeping the same gold policy. ●●

1930 Run on the Bank of United States begins ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On December 10, 1930, a depositor's demand to sell back his stock sparked a run on the Bronx-based Bank of United States. Crowds gathered and police charged the mob as panic spread across its branches. ●●

1930 Collapse of Caldwell and Company ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In October 1930 a drought across the Midwest and South triggered the failure of the Tennessee investment bank Caldwell and Company. Its collapse brought down 120 banks across four southern states. ●●

1930 Schacht resigns from the Reichsbank ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On March 7, 1930, Schacht announced his resignation as Reichsbank president, declaring he would become a country squire and raise pigs. He left over his opposition to the Young Plan's revisions. ●●

1930 Nazis surge in the 1930 Reichstag elections ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the September 1930 elections, called two years early amid the deepening depression, the Nazis won 6.4 million votes and 107 seats, vaulting into second place. The result panicked financial markets and drained German reserves. ●●

1930 Germany and Austria announce a customs union ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In March 1930 Germany and Austria announced plans for a customs union. France and the Czechs, fearing it was a step toward Anschluss, worked to block it, tangling the later banking crisis in politics. ●●

1930 ITT buys majority of the Chile Telephone Company ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1930, when ITT was a cuttingedge telecommunications firm, it bought a majority share of the British-owned Chile Telephone Company, and with it cont (1930) ●●

1930 Soviet state forces collectivization on the peasantry ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Between early 1930 and 1934, the Soviet state conducted a massive campaign against rural peasants. Stalin dispatched twenty-five thousand Communist activists to force collectivization, resulting in unprecedented death tolls and social destruction. ●●

1930 Morgan rescues Kidder Peabody ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1930, Kidder Peabody faced multiple financial blows including a $8 million Italian government deposit withdrawal and instructions from the Bank for International Settlements to switch funds to Swiss banks, prompting a Morgan-coordinated rescue. ●●

1930 Morgan banks issue the Young Loan ai_extracted 2 cit. Morgan banks participated in the Young Loan of 1930, another major German reparations financing that would become problematic under Nazi default threats. ●●

1930 Collectivization famines strike Ukraine and Kazakhstan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The industrialization and collectivization drives of the early and mid-1930s generated massive famines and millions of deaths in Ukraine and Kazakhstan. ●●

1930 Einstein abandons his unified field theory ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Within a year of his 1929 announcement, Einstein abandoned his unified field theory after Wolfgang Pauli and other physicists criticized it. Over the next decade he would attempt multiple revised versions, each similarly unsuccessful. ●●

1930 Argentina's 'infamous decade' follows 1930 coup ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The period following the 1930 coup is known in Argentina as the “infamous decade,” in which a series of military men turned politicians tried to rule the country through electoral fraud, repression, and outright illegality. ●●

1930 Stalin purges the Soviet officer corps ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This control was cemented in the bloody purges of the 1930s, when a quarter to a half of the officer corps were purged by Stalin. ●●

c. March 1930 Weimar Germany's Article 48 sets the precedent for rule by emergency decree 1 cit. As the Weimar Republic's parliament becomes gridlocked, Chancellor Heinrich Bruning increasingly governs through Article 48 of the constitution, which allows the president to issue emergency decrees without parliamentary approval. Historians and democratic-backsliding scholars treat this normalization of emergency decree power, three years before the Enabling Act, as a crucial documented step that weakened parliamentary habits before the Nazi seizure of power. politics ●●●

c. June 1930 Libyan Concentration Camps Established 1 cit. Italian authorities forcibly marched tens of thousands of Cyrenaican Bedouin, along with their surviving livestock, hundreds of kilometers to a string of concentration camps at El Agheila, Soluch, Sisi Ahmed el Magrun, and other sites. Conditions in the camps were severe, with little food, poor sanitation, and forced labor. Historians estimate that of a Cyrenaican population of around 225,000, roughly 40,000 to over 70,000 died in the camps and during the deportation marches, figures still debated by Italian and Libyan historians. society / war ●●●