Events, Verisoph

1932 British royal Christmas broadcast instituted ai_extracted 1 cit. Hobsbawm cites the royal Christmas broadcast as a clear case of a tradition that was deliberately invented and formally instituted at a datable moment. It began in 1932 and quickly came to feel like a long-standing national custom. ●

c. 1932 Fritz Thyssen bankrolls Hitler and later writes 'I Paid Hitler' 1 cit. The steel magnate Fritz Thyssen was one of the earliest big-business backers of the Nazi Party, giving money and lending his name in the years before 1933. He broke with Hitler over the war and fled Germany. The memoir published under his name, I Paid Hitler, describes that funding; Thyssen later distanced himself from parts of the ghostwritten text, so its details are attributed to him rather than taken as gospel. economy / politics ●●●

1933 to 1939 Schacht reappointed head of the Reichsbank under Hitler ai_extracted 1 cit. Hjalmar Schacht, who used his monetary powers to help hand Germany over to Adolf Hitler, was rewarded by being reappointed head of the Reichsbank from 1933 to 1939. ●●●

1933 to 1937 Reichsbank's monetized fiscal policy under Schacht ai_extracted 1 cit. From 1933 to 1937 the Reichsbank under Hjalmar Schacht combined stepped-up central bank credit creation with fiscal spending programs funded by bills of exchange purchased by banks and the central bank, known in the German tradition as silent funding. ●●●

4 March 1933 Launch of the New Deal 1 cit. Franklin Roosevelt takes office amid the Depression and drives through a wave of relief, recovery, and regulatory legislation in his first hundred days. The New Deal redefines the state's role in a capitalist economy. economy / politics ●●●●

13 March 1933 to 1945 Nazi Reich Ministry of Propaganda under Goebbels 2 cit. The Nazi government created the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda under Joseph Goebbels on 13 March 1933, giving the state control over press, radio, film, and the arts. It became a model of total propaganda by a modern dictatorship. politics / war ●●●●●

c. 1933 to c. 1945 Nazi persecution of Freemasons 1 cit. After 1933 the Nazi regime banned German lodges, seized their property, and treated Freemasons as enemies of the state. Thousands of Freemasons across occupied Europe were imprisoned or killed in the camps. politics / religion / war ●●●●

16 June 1933 Glass-Steagall Act separates commercial and investment banking 1 cit. The Banking Act of 1933, known as Glass-Steagall, split commercial banking from investment banking and created federal deposit insurance. It reshaped American finance for the rest of the century. economy / politics ●●●●

5 April 1933 Roosevelt takes the dollar off the domestic gold standard 1 cit. Executive Order 6102 required Americans to turn in most gold coin and bullion to the Federal Reserve. The step ended domestic gold convertibility and let the government manage the dollar's value. economy / politics ●●●

14 July 1933 Nazi Germany enacts compulsory sterilization law 2 cit. The Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring authorized the forced sterilization of people with disabilities and illnesses, drawing openly on American models. About 400,000 people were sterilized against their will. politics / science ●●●

1933 to 1945 Nazi racial hygiene shapes state policy debunked 2 cit. The Nazi regime built its rule around "racial hygiene," claiming a superior Aryan race and marking Jews, Roma, disabled people, and others for persecution. This pseudoscience of human ranking helped drive the genocide of the Holocaust. politics / science ●●●

1933 Gustav Krupp backs Hitler and German rearmament 1 cit. After Adolf Hitler took power in 1933 Gustav Krupp supported the regime and the firm profited from large-scale rearmament. Krupp became a pillar of the Nazi war economy. economy / politics / war ●●●●

1933 to 1945 Nazi Germany turns schools into indoctrination 1 cit. After 1933 the Nazis rewrote curricula to teach racial ideology and loyalty to Hitler and made the Hitler Youth central to raising children. Education became a direct tool of the regime's propaganda. politics / war ●●●

19 April 1933 Roosevelt takes the United States off gold 1 cit. President Franklin Roosevelt suspended gold convertibility and later devalued the dollar to fight deflation. Freeing monetary policy from gold helped the American economy begin to recover. economy / politics ●●●●

1933 Hitler comes to power in Germany (1933) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley marks 1933 as the point when Hitler came to power in Germany, after which both the French Right and Left shifted their foreign policies. ●●

1933 Hitler quits the Disarmament Conference (1933) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When Hitler came to office in January 1933 he demanded immediate arms equality with France; when refused, Germany left the conference and withdrew from the League in October 1933. ●●

1933 Gold maldistribution forces most nations off the gold standard (by 1933) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley notes that a complete maldistribution of gold, acute after 1928, had by 1933 forced most countries off the gold standard as the prewar system of international payments broke down. ●●

1933 United States leaves the gold standard, 1933 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Orders completed on April 20, 1933, took the United States off the gold standard. Unlike Britain in 1931, Washington left gold voluntarily to pursue a domestic policy of price inflation. ●●

1933 World Monetary and Economic Conference, London 1933 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The dispute over whether to prioritize currency stabilization or domestic recovery peaked at the World Monetary and Economic Conference in London, June 12 to July 27, 1933. No agreement was reached. ●●

1933 Roosevelt breaks off stabilization talks ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When a mere hint of a stabilization deal broke the rise in US security and commodity prices in June 1933, Roosevelt broke off all negotiations toward stabilization on July 3, 1933. ●●

1933 Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Backed by industrialists and arranged through Papen, Hitler took office as chancellor on January 30, 1933, in a cabinet with only two other Nazis. Quigley notes it seemed impossible he could gain control, yet within eighteen months he was dictator. ●●

1933 Reichstag fire decree suspends civil liberties ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The day after the Reichstag fire, February 28, 1933, Hindenburg signed a decree suspending civil liberties and empowering the government to search homes and confiscate property. Communist deputies were arrested en masse. ●●

1933 Enabling Act passed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The new Reichstag, meeting March 23, 1933, was asked to pass an enabling act giving the government four years to legislate by decree without the president's signature. It passed 441 to 94. ●●

1933 Concordat between the Nazi state and the Vatican ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Catholic Church withdrew its condemnation of Nazism on March 28, 1933, and signed a Concordat with von Papen on July 20. The agreement began to break down almost immediately. ●●

1933 Gustav Krupp welcomes Hitler's rise for industry ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Writing to Hitler in April 1933 as official representative of the Reich Association of German Industry, Gustav Krupp said the turn of events matched wishes he and his board had long cherished. Quigley cites this as proof industry backed Hitler. ●●

1933 Nazi law makes cartels compulsory ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A law of July 15, 1933, let the economics minister make cartels compulsory, regulate plant capacity, and bar new enterprises. Quigley argues this let big business destroy competition to the benefit of profits. ●●

1933 Banking Act of 1933 separates banking functions ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Banking Act of 1933 separated investment banking from deposit banking, part of the New Deal's effort to curb the power of finance after the 1929-1933 collapse. ●●

1933 Red Vienna's social housing program ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After coming to power in Vienna in 1918, the Social Democrats built almost 60,000 dwellings by 1933, mostly huge apartment houses with parks, clinics, and other facilities, funded by taxes and let at very low rents. ●●

1933 Dollfuss ends Austrian parliamentary government ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 4 March 1933 the Dollfuss government was beaten in parliament by one vote, then threw out a vote on a technicality and used the uproar as an excuse to prevent by force any further meetings of parliament, ruling thereafter by decree. ●●

1933 Quigley links Schroeder Bank to Hitler's 1933 chancellorship ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that the Schroeder Bank in Cologne helped arrange Hitler's accession as chancellor in January 1933, connecting Allen Dulles's banking ties to this network. He raises it while describing Dulles's role in the Iranian coup. ●●

1933 Good Neighbor Policy announced ai_extracted 1 cit. no story President Roosevelt's Good Neighbor Policy of 1933 reduced US intervention in Latin America while retaining investment. Quigley attributes it partly to New Deal idealism and partly to Latin America's dependence on American funds and markets in the depression. ●●

1933 First unofficial Commonwealth Relations conference, Toronto (1933) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The first unofficial conference on British Commonwealth relations was held at Toronto, 11-21 September 1933, funded by the Carnegie Corporation. Quigley says the Milner Group initiated and controlled it. ●●

1933 Committee on Technocracy collapses ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Columbia Committee on Technocracy fell apart in January 1933 amid Scott's premature claims and questions about his credentials. ●●

1933 Humanist Manifesto I published ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the peak of Technocracy interest in 1933, the Humanist Manifesto I was published, calling for religion to come to terms with science and economic change. ●●

1933 Rockefeller Foundation announces program to control human behavior ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto reports that on April 11, 1933, Rockefeller Foundation president Max Mason told insiders a national program was underway to allow the control of human behavior. Gatto argues schooling was central to this design. ●●

1933 Edna Heidbredder publishes Seven Psychologies, 1933 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites Edna Heidbredder's 1933 book Seven Psychologies, which described behaviorism's aggressive spread as a crusade and cult. ●●

1933 James Bryant Conant serves as president of Harvard ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that James Bryant Conant was president of Harvard from 1933 to 1953. He casts Conant as a central figure who defended the Prussian-style transformation of American schooling. ●●

1933 Roosevelt confiscates citizens' gold ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book says that in 1933 the Network convinced President Roosevelt to confiscate US citizens' gold and hand it to the Federal Reserve. It argues this let the Fed print debt money without gold limits. ●●

1933 Hitler's 1933 seizure of power in Germany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book refers to Hitler's 1933 German coup, saying he had murdered and oppressed people from day one. It argues the Network tolerated this and objected only to his open use of force. ●●

1933 Reichstag fire before the March 1933 German election ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book, citing Quigley, describes a plot to burn the Reichstag and blame Communists ahead of the March 5, 1933 election. It says the fire was used to justify suspending civil liberties and mass arrests. ●●

1933 State bank holidays cascade across America ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After Michigan closed its banks on February 14, 1933, governor after governor followed, with Indiana, Maryland, Arkansas, and Ohio shutting their banks in late February. The closures spread panic nationwide. ●●

1933 Hoover and Roosevelt clash over the banks ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On March 3, 1933, the eve of inauguration, Hoover pressed Roosevelt to join him in closing the banks, and Roosevelt refused in blunt terms. Each waited for the other as the banking system unraveled. ●●

1933 New York and Illinois close their banks ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the early hours of March 4, 1933, Governor Lehman proclaimed a three-day bank holiday in New York, and Governor Horner of Illinois followed an hour later. The nation's financial center shut as Roosevelt was about to be inaugurated. ●●

1933 The banking system grinds to a halt ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By early March 1933 the banking systems of 28 states were completely closed and the rest partly so. Over three years bank credit had shrunk from $50 billion to $30 billion, a quarter of banks had collapsed, and 13 million were jobless. ●●

1933 Roosevelt declares a national bank holiday ai_extracted 1 cit. no story One day into his presidency, Roosevelt closed every bank in the country, invoking the 1917 Trading with the Enemy Act. He also suspended the export and private hoarding of gold in the United States. ●●

1933 Emergency Banking Act submitted to Congress ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On March 9, 1933, the Emergency Banking Act reached Congress, largely based on a draft by outgoing Treasury officials. It let banks reopen in stages and finally pushed the Fed to act as lender of last resort. ●●

1933 Roosevelt's first fireside chat ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On the evening of March 12, 1933, Roosevelt gave the first of his fireside chats, explaining the banking crisis to millions of listeners. When banks reopened the next day, depositors returned their money instead of withdrawing it. ●●

1933 Economy Act cuts federal spending ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On March 20, 1933, Congress passed the Economy Act, cutting public employee salaries and department budgets. It was one of the first measures of Roosevelt's celebrated first hundred days. ●●

1933 Glass-Steagall Act separates banking ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Passed in June 1933, the Glass-Steagall Act split commercial and investment banking and guaranteed bank deposits. The same period produced the Truth-in-Securities Act governing new securities issues. ●●

1933 Roosevelt takes the dollar off gold ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On April 18, 1933, Roosevelt told his advisers he would back the Thomas amendment, which let him devalue the dollar against gold by up to 50 percent. The decision horrified his hard-money advisers. ●●

1933 Markets rally after dollar leaves gold ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the days after Roosevelt devalued the dollar, the stock market surged 15 percent, giving the move an overwhelming vote of confidence. Wholesale prices and industrial production climbed sharply over the following months. ●●

1933 Montagu Norman marries Priscilla Worsthorne ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 20, 1933, it emerged that Bank of England governor Montagu Norman had applied for a marriage license. The 61-year-old married the 33-year-old Priscilla Worsthorne amid a media scrum. ●●

1933 London World Economic Conference opens ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The World Economic Conference opened on June 12, 1933, in South Kensington, drawing delegates from 66 nations. Conceived under Hoover, it aimed to address the global Depression but ended in failure. ●●

1933 Roosevelt torpedoes currency stabilization ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Roosevelt cabled the London conference to reject a currency stabilization agreement, calling it a specious fallacy. He would not let international considerations block U.S. recovery through devaluation. ●●

1933 U.S. government begins buying gold ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After an October 22, 1933, fireside chat, the government began buying gold in the open market to push the dollar lower. Every one of Roosevelt's economic advisers opposed the policy, and several resigned or were fired. ●●

1933 Hitler appointed chancellor of Germany ai_extracted 2 cit. In January 1933, President von Hindenburg bowed to political pressure and appointed Adolf Hitler chancellor. Schacht had been a prominent supporter and fundraiser for the Nazi movement. ●●

1933 Schacht returns to the Reichsbank ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On March 16, 1933, Hjalmar Schacht returned as Reichsbank president after a three-year absence. He was given wide control over economic policy and launched a massive public-works and money-printing program. ●●

1933 Charles Mitchell examined over Crash losses ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In February 1933 Charles Mitchell was the first to undergo examination for his role in the multimillion-dollar losses that took place during the Crash. He strode into the... ●●

1933 Mitchell resigns as chairman of National City Bank ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Humiliated before Congress; the press, which had once adored him for his vision; and the public, Mitchell resigned as chairman of National City Bank on February 26, 1933. James... ●●

1933 Pecora hearings investigate House of Morgan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The House of Morgan became the first private bank investigated by Special Counsel Ferdinand Pecora. The bank's leadership, including Jack Morgan, was subpoenaed for extended testimony about their financial practices and alleged improprieties. ●●

1933 Jack Morgan photographed with Lya Graf ai_extracted 1 cit. no story During Pecora hearings, photographers unexpectedly captured images of Jack Morgan with actress Lya Graf outside a restaurant. The photographs appeared on front pages across America, becoming among the best-known Depression-era images. ●●

1933 US introduces deposit insurance ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The United States introduced deposit insurance to reduce the vulnerability of American banks to runs during financial crises. ●●

1933 Hitler takes office as Chancellor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Adolf Hitler took office in 1933 and gained power to rule by decree, creating uncertainty about German debt obligations that would concern American bankers. ●●

1933 Schacht sent to Washington over German debt ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In May 1933, Hitler dispatched Reichsbank president Hjalmar Schacht to Washington to negotiate about Germany's foreign debt crisis. ●●

1933 Ford retracts and apologizes for The International Jew ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Not only did Ford apologize to the Jews and retract the book, but he wrote to Fritsch, asking him to recall the German edition. Deaf to these pleas, Fritsch published The International Jew right until... ●●

1933 Carl Melchior resigns from the BIS ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After all, I have been in the trenches now for twenty years.”7 In March 1933, Melchior resigned as a German representative to the Bank for International Settlements before Schacht pushed him out and stepped down as chairman of the Beiersdorf supervisory board.8 He didn’t regard the Nazis as amenable to reason. ●●

1933 Nazi book burning at the Berlin Opera House ai_extracted 2 cit. On May 10, 1933, students hurled books by Mann, Einstein, Proust, and Freud on a pyre outside the Berlin Opera House, followed five days later by an SS bonfire of books near Altona. ●●

1933 Nazis arrest educator Kurt Hahn ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In March 1933, the Nazis arrested Kurt and forbid further contact between him and his students. ●●

1933 Einstein renounces German citizenship ai_extracted 1 cit. no story the most original physicist of the twentieth century once again renounced his German citizenship. ●●

1933 Von Neumann, Weyl, and Alexander join the IAS ai_extracted 1 cit. no story They were joined by John von Neumann, Hermann Weyl, and James Alexander in 1933, and Marston Morse in 1934 ●●

1933 IBM designs and runs Hitler's first census ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ws and all of Europe, IBM custom-designed the punch cards and other data processing solutions to streamline those campaigns into what the company described as “blitzkrieg efficiency. “111 It began in 1933, when the company designed and executed Hitler’s first census. From there, IBM’s involvement wi ●●

1933 Hitler gives first national radio address as Chancellor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ya ‘Every Worker his Work’ On 1 February 1933, two days after his appointment as Chancellor, sweating with anticipation, Hitler recorded the first national radio address of his life.’ The unifying thread of his speech was the determin- ation of his g ●●

1933 Todt appointed inspector general for German roads ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the last days of June 1933, z 46 “EVERY WORKER HIS WORK’ Todt was appointed as general inspector for German roads, with auth- ority over both the autobahns and major provincial roads. ●●

1933 Cabinet grants Schacht power to declare debt moratorium ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In April 1933 the cabinet gave Schacht carte blanche to instigate a moratorium on Germany’s international debts, at a moment of his choosing.” At first, Schacht hoped to exploit the confused situation in the United States by announcing an immediate d ●●

1933 Schacht convenes German creditors conference in Berlin ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the end of May 1933 Schacht convoked a §i THE WAGES OF DESTRUCTION conference of Germany’s creditors in Berlin where he sought to persuade them of the need for at least a partial moratorium. ●●

1933 Mefo bills first issued to finance rearmament ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Small numbers of Mefo $ 54 “EVERY WORKER HIS WORK’ bills were issued in the autumn of 1933 to tide the early Luftwaffe contractors over a cash crisis.°* Large-scale disbursement began in April 1934, conveniently timed to coincide with the renewed pr ●●

1933 Rearmament budget set to triple civilian job spending ai_extracted 1 cit. no story According to the agreement of June 1933, military spending was to be almost three times larger than the combined total of all of the civilian work creation measures announced in 1932 and 1933. ●●

1933 Britain launches new disarmament proposals ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The opportunity presented itself in October 1933 when the British launched a new round of disarmament proposals. ●●

1933 Berlin conference sets Nazi aircraft industry policy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The new dispensation was spelled out to the German aircraft industry at a conference held in Berlin on 20 October 1933, two days after the Junkers expropriation.”’ Greeting the aircraft industrialists in solemn silence with arm raised in salute, Goer ●●

1933 German advertising council restricts use of 'Volk' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In fact, by 1933 the use of the term ‘Volk’ had become so inflationary that the newly established German advertising council was forced to ban the unlicensed use of the term. ●●

1933 Propaganda Ministry commissions the People's Radio ai_extracted 1 cit. In May 1933 the Propaganda Ministry took the initiative by coming to an agreement with a group of radio manufacturers to push through the large-scale production of a new standard radio.*’ This was to be cheaper than any radio previously on the market ●●

1933 Nazi regime abolishes tax on newly bought cars ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In April 1933, the regime also announced the elimination of car tax on all newly acquired vehicles. ●●

1933 US troops leave Nicaragua, empowering Somoza's Guard ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When the American military forces left Nicaragua for the last time, in 1933, they left behind a souvenir by which the Nicaraguan people could remember them: the National Guard, placed under the direction of one Anastasio Somoza (just as in 1924 the U ●●

1933 Southern Rhodesia buys back its mineral rights ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Southern Rhodesia government purchased the British South Africa Company's mineral rights using money raised from African taxpayers, a transaction Nkrumah highlights as a burden shifted onto the colonised. ●●

27 February 1933 Reichstag Fire and the emergency decree 1 cit. The Reichstag building burns and the Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe is arrested at the scene. The Nazis blame a communist plot and the next day issue the Reichstag Fire Decree suspending civil liberties, opening a wave of arrests. Historians still debate whether van der Lubbe acted alone or the fire served Nazi aims, but its use to crush opposition is clear. politics ●●●

23 March 1933 Enabling Act passed in Germany 1 cit. With communist deputies barred and SA men filling the hall, the Reichstag passes the Enabling Act, letting the cabinet make laws without parliament. The act gives Hitler dictatorial powers under a veneer of legality and marks the legal end of the Weimar Republic. politics ●●●●

1933 The 1933 identity cards fix ethnicity in law 1 cit. The Belgian administration carried out a census and issued identity cards that stamped every Rwandan as Hutu, Tutsi, or Twa, often using crude measures like cattle counts and physical features. What had been a shifting social category became a fixed, inherited, state-recorded race that a person could not escape. These cards followed families for generations and were later used at roadblocks in 1994 to sort who would live and who would die. Scholars widely name this colonial race classification as the documented engine of later ethnic violence. politics / society ●●●

c. 1933 The documented driver was colonial policy, not any secret lodge unproven 2 cit. Fringe conspiracy writing sometimes blames Masonic or secret-society plots for Rwanda's ethnic engineering. There is no credible evidence for any such claim, and serious historians do not entertain it. The documented driver is plain and well-recorded: Belgian colonial administration and Church thinking turned a fluid social order into a racial hierarchy through census, identity cards, and Hamitic race theory. Naming a hidden lodge only distracts from the real, traceable chain of colonial policy. politics / society ●

1933 The Nazis weaponize the Jewish finance lie legendary 1 cit. Nazi propaganda made the myth of Jewish financial and world control a core message, casting Jews as the hidden power behind both banking and communism to justify persecution. This lie helped pave the road to the Holocaust, in which six million Jews were murdered. The trope of international Jewish finance is not a harmless exaggeration; it was central to the deadliest genocide of the modern era and is false in every part. politics / war ●●●

20 February 1933 German industrialists back Hitler at a private meeting 1 cit. Three weeks after Hitler became chancellor, some two dozen leading German industrialists met privately with him and Hermann Goering. Hitler promised to crush the labor movement and rebuild the military, and the businessmen pledged large sums for the coming election. The meeting, arranged with Hjalmar Schacht, tied big German business to the new regime. economy / politics ●●●●

1933 German business pays into the Adolf Hitler Endowment 1 cit. After Hitler took power, major companies paid regular contributions into a fund known as the Adolf Hitler Endowment of German Industry. It channeled business money to the Nazi leadership on an ongoing basis. The arrangement bound German industry to the regime and bought a measure of quiet cooperation. economy / politics ●●

c. 1933 IBM's German subsidiary supplies punch-card machines 1 cit. IBM's German subsidiary Dehomag leased and serviced Hollerith punch-card tabulating machines used in German censuses and record-keeping. In his book IBM and the Holocaust, Edwin Black argues this data technology helped the regime identify and track victims. Black's charge of knowing complicity is his interpretation; the machines and the business relationship are documented. economy / technology ●●●

c. 1933 Luhya families are displaced and given token compensation 4 cit. Luhya families whose land fell inside the mining area were moved aside so prospecting and mining could go ahead. Compensation was small and set by the administration, not by the people who lost the use of their land. The reserve had been redrawn around European interests, and its residents had little say in the outcome. economy / society ●●●

c. 1933 Kalecki sketches a demand-led theory of output 1 cit. Michal Kalecki developed an independent demand-led macroeconomics in the early 1930s, before The General Theory appeared in English. His work is a useful warning against treating Keynesian economics as one man inventing the whole field from nothing; similar problems were pushing several economists toward aggregate-demand explanations. economy / science ●●●

c. 1934 to c. 1975 Sweden runs decades-long sterilization program 1 cit. Sweden forcibly or coercively sterilized around 60,000 people, mostly women, under eugenic and social policy. The program showed that eugenics took hold in democracies, not only under the Nazis. politics / society ●

1934 Shifting membership of the League of Nations Council ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Germany joined the League in 1926 and withdrew with Japan in 1933; the Soviet Union was admitted in 1934 and expelled in 1939 after attacking Finland. ●●

1934 German budget reveals rearmament (March 1934) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The German budget released in March 1934 showed 210 million marks for an air force forbidden by Versailles and a sharp increase in the army appropriation. ●●

1934 United States returns to gold at a devalued dollar ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On February 1, 1934, the United States went back on the gold standard at a large devaluation, cutting the gold content to 59.06 percent of the 1932 figure and offering to buy gold at $35 an ounce. ●●

1934 Hull Reciprocal Trade Program enacted ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The reciprocal trade act of 1934, renewed thereafter, let the US executive negotiate tariff cuts of up to 50 percent in exchange for concessions. Through most-favored-nation clauses these bilateral deals worked multilaterally. ●●

1934 Night of the Long Knives (blood purge) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On June 30, 1934, Hitler had the SS arrest SA leaders gathered at Bad Wiessee and shot most at once. Several thousand were killed, making the Nazi movement a counterrevolution of the Right protecting the economic status quo. ●●