Events, Verisoph

1942 Backe demands 3.5 million Jews removed from food supply ai_extracted 1 cit. no story June 23, 1942: Reich Food Minister demands Jewish elimination from food supply to increase grain exports. ●●

1942 Goering orders occupied territories to starve ai_extracted 1 cit. no story August 6, 1942: Reichsmarschall demands 500,000 tons grain extraction; peoples in occupied territories must starve. ●●

1942 Wannsee Conference plans the Final Solution ai_extracted 2 cit. January 20, 1942: Heydrich proposes working Jews to death on transport infrastructure projects. ●●

1942 Albert Speer takes control of armaments ai_extracted 1 cit. no story February 1942: Speer takes office with control over civilian economy and armaments production. ●●

1942 Hitler prioritizes ammunition production ai_extracted 1 cit. no story January 1942: Hitler demands massive ammunition production for six months at 1941 consumption rates. ●●

1942 Atanasoff abandons his computer for the Navy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Atanasoff leaves his unfinished electronic computer at Iowa State to serve in the Navy, and the machine is later dismantled and forgotten. ●●

16 December 1942 The Auschwitz decree 1 cit. On 16 December 1942 Himmler ordered that Roma from across the German-controlled Reich be deported to Auschwitz. The order set in motion the mass transport of Roma families to the death camp. It is a central document of the Porajmos, the Roma word for the genocide, meaning the devouring. politics / society / war ●●●

c. 1942 The War Strengthens the Chiefs and the Loyalist Administration 6 cit. The wartime state leaned hard on the African population, pressing men into the army and carrier corps, requisitioning cattle and grain, fixing crop prices, and demanding communal labour, and it worked through the government chiefs and headmen to do it. Delivering recruits, taxes, and produce made the chiefs more powerful and more resented, and the war rewarded the cooperative administrative class with authority and patronage. Historians note that this deepening of chiefly power widened the gap between the loyalist establishment and the ordinary people who bore the war's burdens. economy / politics / war ●●

October 1943 Munitions Corporation Law promulgated ai_extracted 1 cit. As part of the 1943 Measures to Strengthen the Domestic System, corporate law was changed and the Munitions Corporation Law was promulgated in October 1943, eliminating shareholders' influence on firm management. ●●●

November 1943 Creation of the Munitions Ministry ai_extracted 1 cit. In November 1943 the Cabinet Planning Board was united with the Ministry of Commerce and Industry to form the powerful Munitions Ministry, strengthening the planners' powers. ●●●

1943 Casablanca demand for unconditional surrender ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the Casablanca conference in January 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill decided to occupy Sicily and to demand the unconditional surrender of the three totalitarian powers. The published demand set off a controversy Quigley says solidified enemy resistance. ●●

1943 German Sixth Army surrenders at Stalingrad ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After being encircled and forbidden to retreat, General Paulus surrendered the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad in early February 1943, two days after Hitler promoted him to field marshal. Of 270,000 Germans surrounded, over 100,000 were dead and 93,000 surrendered. ●●

1943 Doenitz replaces Raeder as head of the German navy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When Grand Admiral Raeder protested Hitler's decision to decommission most surface warships for lack of fuel, he was removed and replaced by the U-boat specialist Karl Doenitz in January 1943. It marked a shift toward submarine warfare. ●●

1943 Allied invasion of Sicily ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Allied landings in Sicily on July 10, 1943, were the greatest landing-assault of the war, with eight divisions coming ashore side by side. The campaign was carried on ineptly, letting the Germans evacuate their forces to Italy. ●●

1943 Fall of Mussolini ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On July 25, 1943, after more than twenty years in power, Mussolini was forced to resign by the king and arrested, following a no-confidence vote by the Fascist Grand Council. His fall did not improve Italy's position or end the war. ●●

1943 Italy signs armistice with the Allies ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After days of discussion, the Badoglio government signed an armistice accepting the Allied terms on September 3, 1943, to be kept secret until Allied troops could land in force. Its premature publication let the Germans seize much of Italy. ●●

1943 Italy declares war on Germany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After signing a longer armistice that bound it to the Allied command, the king's government declared war on Germany on October 13, 1943. Italy became a co-belligerent while German forces still fought on Italian soil. ●●

1943 Katyn mass graves announced ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On April 13, 1943, German radio announced the discovery at Katyn near Smolensk of mass graves holding thousands of Polish officers. Quigley concludes the mass of evidence shows they were shot by Soviet authorities in the spring of 1940, and the affair broke Soviet-Polish relations. ●●

1943 Trident Conference sets Overlord for May 1944 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943, Churchill and Roosevelt set the cross-Channel attack, Overlord, for May 1944 and ordered an intensified aerial bombardment of Germany as a preliminary. Postwar issues were left unresolved. ●●

1943 UNRRA founded at Atlantic City ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At its first meeting in Atlantic City in November 1943, forty-four nations agreed to fund the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration by contributing one percent of their national incomes. Former New York governor Herbert Lehman was elected director-general. ●●

1943 Connally Resolution passes the Senate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In November 1943 the Connally Resolution favoring a postwar international organization passed the U.S. Senate by 85 to 5. With the earlier Fulbright Resolution in the House, it signaled a decisive turn away from isolationism. ●●

1943 Teheran decision to back Tito over Mihajlovic ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At Teheran in late 1943, Churchill made the fateful suggestion to shift Allied supplies in Yugoslavia from the royalist Chetniks under Mihajlovic to the Communist Partisans under Tito. Quigley argues the change, made without a clear grasp of its meaning, ensured Communist control of postwar Yugoslavia. ●●

1943 Firestorm raids on Hamburg ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Beginning July 24, 1943, British raids on Hamburg with high-explosive and incendiary bombs created unprecedented 'fire storms' with hurricane-force winds. German authorities later set the toll at about 40,000 dead and half the city destroyed. ●●

1943 American daylight raid on Schweinfurt ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On October 14, 1943, the first great American effort against Schweinfurt, which made 80 percent of German ball bearings, showed the cost of precision daylight bombing: 62 of 228 heavy bombers failed to return. Short-range escorts had to turn back at the German border. ●●

1943 Conquest of the Solomon Islands ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By February 8, 1943, after six months of jungle fighting often without air or sea support, the Solomons were conquered. Six naval battles weakened Japanese surface forces and left at least 135,000 enemy ground troops isolated. ●●

1943 Proximity VT fuse first used in combat ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The radar proximity fuse, one of the war's greatest scientific achievements, was first used in action on 5 January 1943 by the U.S.S. Helena against a Japanese plane. ●●

1943 Sicily invasion deception of 1943 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley cites the 1943 invasion of Sicily as a model of counterespionage: the Germans were fed false information through Spain about an invasion of the Balkans. ●●

1943 Peron comes to power in Argentina ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Juan D. Peron, an army officer, came to power by a coup d'etat in 1943 and based his control on an alliance of the military with the workers. His unprincipled rule and lack of a plan led to his overthrow by the military in 1955. ●●

1943 Government absorbs Chatham House's research arm (April 1943) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the end of 1942 Eden wrote to Lord Astor that the government wished to take over the Foreign Research and Press Service completely; this was done in April 1943, becoming the ministry's Research Department. ●●

1943 FDR appoints Aldrich to lead National War Fund ai_extracted 2 cit. no story In April 1943, FDR summoned Winthrop Aldrich to the White House to offer him the position of chairman of the National War Fund. This centralized banker control over domestic war relief fundraising and elevated their power. ●●

1943 FDR freezes prices and wages by executive order ai_extracted 2 cit. no story On April 8, 1943, FDR issued an executive order freezing prices, wages, and salaries across the economy. This effort aimed to control inflation during the intensive war production and full-employment phase. ●●

1943 White and Keynes plans for postwar finance published ai_extracted 2 cit. In April 1943, the American and British Treasuries published the White and Keynes plans for creating multinational finance entities. These competing visions would shape postwar monetary institutions and global financial power. ●●

1943 Current Tax Payment Act takes effect ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Current Tax Payment Act took effect on June 9, 1943, allowing the federal government to collect income taxes in the current year rather than the following year. This accelerated revenue for war financing. ●●

1943 Revenue Act of 1943 raises excess profits tax to 95% ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Revenue Act of 1943 raised the excess profits tax from 90 to 95 percent while broadening the overall tax base. Though FDR vetoed the legislation, Congress overrode the veto in 1944. ●●

1943 Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act renewed in 1943 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Morgan banker Thomas Lamont convinced Republican opposition in Congress to support the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act of 1943. This expanded FDR's power to negotiate trade deals and reduce tariffs, advancing banker internationalism. ●●

1943 Jack Morgan dies ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On March 13, 1943, Jack Morgan died at age seventy-five, ending the era of direct Morgan family leadership of the bank. ●●

1943 Norwegian commandos parachute for Vemork sabotage ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This time six men, Norwegians native to the region and trained as Special Forces, parachuted onto a frozen lake thirty miles northwest of Vemork on February 16, 1943, the night of a full moon.1769 “Here lay the Hardanger Vidda,” one of them, Knut Haukelid, writes of the high plateau that surrounded the lake, “the largest, loneliest and wildest mountain area in northern Europe.” The men wore white jumpsuits over British Army uniforms and parachuted with skis, supplies, a shortwave radio and eighteen sets of plastic explosives, one for each of the eighteen stainless-steel electrolysis cells of the High Concentration Plant—which happened to have been designed by a refugee physical chemist, Lief Tronstad, who was now responsible to the Norwegian High Command in London for intelligence and sabotage. ●●

1943 Japanese colloquium deems atomic bomb impractical ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Japanese physics colloquium in Tokyo had decided in March 1943 that an atomic bomb was possible but not practically attainable by any of the belligerents in time to be of use in the present war. ●●

1943 Bohr escapes to Scotland with Heisenberg's reactor drawing ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When Niels Bohr escaped from Stockholm to Scotland on October 6, 1943, he carried with him Werner Heisenberg’s drawing of an experimental heavy-water reactor. ●●

1943 Casablanca Conference declares unconditional surrender ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Roosevelt and Churchill announced the policy of unconditional surrender at Casablanca in January 1943. Roosevelt proposed the policy to focus all Allied energy on winning the war and to reassure Stalin that there would be no separate peace. ●●

1943 Allied landing in Italy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the conquest of the northern shore of the Mediterranean, there was a landing in Italy in the spring of 1943, which knocked Italy out of the war. This was part of Roosevelt's strategy to defeat Germany first while also engaging in Mediterranean operations. ●●

1943 Wiener and Bigelow publish 'Behavior, Purpose and Teleology' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story With neurophysiologist Arturo Rosenblueth, Bigelow and Wiener coauthored a 1943 paper, “Behavior, Purpose and Teleology,” that suggested unifying prin ●●

1943 Italian Christian Democratic party (DC) founded ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Italian Christian Democratic party—the Democrazia Cristiana or DC—was founded in 1943 as an heir to the Partito Popolare and originally conceived of itself as a progressive, mass-based party that would compete with the Italian Communists. ●●

1943 Life magazine devotes issue to the Soviet Union ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1943 Life maga-zine devoted an entire issue in honor of the Soviet Union’s accomplishments, going far beyond what was demanded by the need for wartime solidarity, going so far as to call Lenin “perhaps the greatest man of modern times”.! ●●

1943 Birth of William Cooper ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Milton William Cooper, the author of Behold a Pale Horse, was born into a military family; he would go on to serve in the Air Force and Navy before becoming a well-known conspiracy researcher and radio broadcaster. ●●

1943 War Department agrees to fund ENIAC ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Army officials approve funding for Mauchly and Eckert's proposed electronic computer, which becomes ENIAC. ●●

1943 Flowers completes the first Colossus computer ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Tommy Flowers builds the first Colossus machine at Bletchley Park, the first fully electronic, programmable, operational digital computer. ●●

c. 1943 Elijah Masinde founds Dini ya Msambwa among the Bukusu 4 cit. Elijah Masinde, a Bukusu former footballer and prophet, founded Dini ya Msambwa, whose name means religion of the ancestors or spirits. The movement rejected Christian missions and British rule and revived traditional Luhya worship. It quickly spread beyond the Bukusu and alarmed the colonial administration. politics / religion ●●

March 1944 Share dividends capped at 5 percent ai_extracted 1 cit. In March 1944 the annual share dividend was decreased to 5 percent, eliminating residual shareholder influence and reducing shareholders to fixed-income investors without a vote. ●●

1944 to 1945 Creation of the main bank system ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1944 key military suppliers were designated munitions companies, and in 1945 over six hundred firms were assigned designated banks by the Ministry of Finance under a compulsory lending system; these main bank relationships lasted into the present. ●●●●

1 July 1944 Bretton Woods Conference sets the postwar monetary order 1 cit. Delegates from forty-four nations agreed to fix exchange rates to the US dollar, which was convertible to gold. The conference also created the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. economy / politics ●●●●●

1944 Allied landing at Anzio ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 22, 1944, two Allied divisions landed at Anzio behind the German rear to cut communications toward Monte Cassino. Kesselring quickly sealed off the beachhead, producing a months-long stalemate. ●●

1944 Allied forces enter Rome ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The stalemate broke in May 1944, and on June 4, 1944, the American 88th Division, an all-selective-service unit, entered Rome. Retreating Germans murdered prisoners and civilians as they withdrew. ●●

1944 D-Day: the invasion of Normandy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The long-planned cross-Channel invasion, Overlord, began on D-Day, June 6, 1944. It followed nine months of preparations after the Teheran Conference and opened the western front against Germany. ●●

1944 July 20 plot to assassinate Hitler ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On July 20, 1944, Colonel Klaus von Stauffenberg left a briefcase bomb beside Hitler's chair at his East Prussian headquarters. Hitler survived because the meeting was in a wooden shed and he had moved away, and the failed plot led to thousands of arrests and executions. ●●

1944 Germany launches the V-2 rocket against England ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On September 8, 1944, the V-1 flying bomb was superseded by the far superior V-2, a rocket that could not be intercepted because it flew faster than sound. About 1,050 fell on England, but the weapons achieved no military results. ●●

1944 Liberation of Paris ai_extracted 1 cit. no story General Leclerc's French 2nd Armored Division burst into Paris on August 24, 1944, and accepted the surrender of the German garrison of 10,000 men. The city's citizens had risen in revolt on August 19th. ●●

1944 De Gaulle heads a provisional government in Paris ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On August 26, 1944, De Gaulle entered Paris and was made president of a provisional government formed by returning exiles and underground leaders. The main Allied armies swept past the city toward the German frontier. ●●

1944 Romania surrenders to the Allies ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After King Michael overthrew Antonescu, Romania's armistice was signed on September 12, 1944, formally to the United Nations but with enforcement left to the Soviet High Command. The Anglo-British members of the control commission were reduced to observers. ●●

1944 Churchill-Stalin percentages agreement on the Balkans ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the Moscow Conference of October 9-18, 1944, Churchill and Stalin agreed to divide Anglo-Soviet interests in the Balkans on a percentage basis, with Russia predominant in Romania and Bulgaria and Britain in Greece. Hungary and Yugoslavia were split fifty-fifty. ●●

1944 Warsaw Home Army forced to surrender ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After rising against the Germans at Soviet invitation, the Polish Home Army in Warsaw surrendered on October 3, 1944, following sixty-three days of hopeless fighting while Soviet forces halted nearby and blocked supplies. Quigley calls this Soviet treachery that removed the chief obstacle to Communist rule in Poland. ●●

1944 American invasion of Leyte moved up to October ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On Admiral Halsey's suggestion, the invasion of Leyte in the Philippines was advanced from December 20 to October 20, 1944, canceling four intermediate landings. Roosevelt and Churchill approved the change within ninety minutes at the Second Quebec Conference. ●●

1944 Battle of Leyte, the largest naval conflict in history ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The American landing at Leyte in October 1944 provoked the Japanese into the Battle of Leyte, which Quigley calls the largest naval conflict in history. It ended the Japanese Navy as an effective fighting force and was the last battle in which battleships played a role. ●●

1944 Theory of Games and Economic Behavior published ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern published Theory of Games and Economic Behavior in 1944, founding game theory as a tool for analyzing conflict and decisions. ●●

1944 German V-2 rockets strike London and Antwerp ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Work by von Braun and others at Peenemuende produced the V-2, which bombarded London and Antwerp from September 1944 until the end of the war. ●●

1944 First V-1 flying bombs over England ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Germany launched its V-1 robot planes against England from 12 June 1944. Proximity-fused defenses eventually destroyed most of them. ●●

1944 First plutonium pile goes critical at Hanford ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The first giant plutonium-producing pile at Hanford went critical on 27 September 1944, then unexpectedly shut itself down and restarted, a problem later traced to a neutron-absorbing xenon isotope. ●●

1944 Strategic Bombing Survey established ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 3 November 1944 the Secretary of War set up a twelve-man committee to conduct a Strategic Bombing Survey, whose findings largely failed to support the claims of air-power advocates. ●●

1944 Halifax's Toronto speech for a single-voice Commonwealth (24 Jan 1944) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In a speech to the Toronto Board of Trade on 24 January 1944, Lord Halifax argued Britain could not remain a great power on its own and urged coordinated Commonwealth foreign policy and defense. ●●

1944 The July 1944 attempt to assassinate Hitler ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley traces the 1938 conspiracy forward to its eventual fruition in the 20 July 1944 bomb plot against Hitler. ●●

1944 Operation Paperclip begins ai_extracted 1 cit. The top-secret Operation Paperclip began in 1944, bringing Nazi scientists to America under military contracts while obscuring their pasts. ●●

1944 Intellectuals rank Bellamy's 'Looking Backwards' near Das Kapital ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto reports that in 1944 Charles Beard, John Dewey, and Edward Weeks each named Edward Bellamy's utopian novel Looking Backwards the most influential modern book after Marx's Das Kapital. ●●

1944 Karl Polanyi publishes The Great Transformation ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites Karl Polanyi's 1944 book The Great Transformation, which he reads as concluding that modern history points toward the end of liberty. He uses it to frame schooling as part of a loss of freedom. ●●

1944 Schacht arrested after July 20 plot ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the failed July 20, 1944, plot to assassinate Hitler, Schacht was arrested and imprisoned in Berlin. He was held not for proven complicity but for his potential value as a hostage or intermediary. ●●

1944 Montagu Norman retires and is made a peer ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After an infection following a fall damaged his health, Norman retired as Bank of England governor in 1944. He was raised to the peerage as Lord Norman of St. Clere and died in 1950. ●●

1944 Bretton Woods conference opens ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On June 30, 1944, the international monetary conference opened at the Mount Washington Hotel in New Hampshire. Its 44 nations designed the postwar system built on the plans of Keynes and White. ●●

1944 Bretton Woods conference closes ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On July 22, 1944, the Bretton Woods conference closed with a banquet where Keynes gave the final address. It established the International Monetary Fund and the postwar monetary system that endured for thirty years. ●●

1944 Individual Income Tax Act of 1944 lifts top rate to 94% ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Individual Income Tax Act of 1944 went further, raising the top-bracket tax rate to 94 percent.) It wasn’t so much the income tax elements of the Revenue Act of 1935 that... ●●

1944 SS takes over the Nordhausen rocket works ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In late 1944 the general reached an agreement with Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, under which the SS’s representative, Hans Kammler, took over day-to-day management at Nordhausen on the condition that selected Dornberger subordinates (like latter-day U. ●●

1944 Deportation of Hungary's Jews to death camps ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In Hungary Germany installed a more cooperative prime minister in 1944 and succeeded in deporting about 70 percent of the country’s Jewish population—more than 400,000 people—to death camps in a matter of weeks. In the Baltic countries of Latvia and Lithuania, the subtleties of St. ●●

1944 Bretton Woods Conference convenes in New Hampshire ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In July 1944, 730 delegates from 44 Allied nations gathered at the Mount Washington Hotel in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, for three weeks. They debated and established the International Monetary Fund and World Bank to govern postwar global finance. ●●

1944 Aldrich issues currency plan opposing Bretton Woods ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On September 16, 1944, Chase chairman Winthrop Aldrich issued a Proposed Currency Plan criticizing the Bretton Woods accords. Aldrich opposed the IMF as a potential obstacle to private banker control over global finance. ●●

1944 Manly Hall publishes The Secret Destiny of America ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Manly Hall published The Secret Destiny of America from his Philosophical Research Society campus, presenting his thesis that enlightened intellects and secret societies like Freemasonry influenced the founding of the United States with principles of liberty and religious toleration. ●●

1944 Largest atomic pile yet assembled is completed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story But after a couple of seconds he relaxed, realizing that under no circumstances could natural uranium and natural wood in any configuration cause a chain reaction.2103 Tuesday evening, September 26, 1944, the largest atomic pile yet assembled on earth was ready. ●●

1944 Second front opens in Normandy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The second front in Normandy did not come about until June 1944, by which time Germany was so weakened that Allied casualties were greatly reduced and a decisive victory was within reach. ●●

1944 Hanford begins plutonium separation ai_extracted 1 cit. no story First irradiated uranium slugs begin plutonium separation at Hanford 221-T plant ●●

1944 ALSOS mission enters liberated Paris ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ALSOS intelligence mission under Boris Pash becomes first American unit to enter liberated Paris ●●

1944 ALSOS finds Germany has no atomic bomb program ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ALSOS team discovers definitive evidence that Germany has no atomic bomb program ●●

1944 The Harvard Mark I goes into operation ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Howard Aiken's Harvard Mark I, built with IBM, is put into operation as a programmable, though electromechanical, computer. ●●

1944 Grace Hopper joins the Harvard Mark I project ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Naval officer Grace Hopper reports to Harvard to work on the Mark I under Howard Aiken, beginning her career as a programming pioneer. ●●

2 August 1944 Liquidation of the Gypsy family camp 1 cit. On the night of 2 to 3 August 1944 the SS killed the remaining Roma in the Auschwitz family camp in the gas chambers, roughly three thousand people, after an earlier attempt in May had been met with resistance from the prisoners. This date is now marked as Roma Holocaust Remembrance Day. It stands for the destruction of Roma communities across Nazi-occupied Europe. society / war ●●●

1944 The Kenya African Union Is Founded 2 cit. In 1944 African activists formed the Kenya African Study Union, partly to support Eliud Mathu, the first African appointed to the colony's Legislative Council, and in 1946 it became the Kenya African Union, the first colony-wide African political body. KAU pressed constitutionally for more African representation, an end to the colour bar, and the return of alienated land. It drew together moderate mission-educated leaders and more militant activists, and the tension between those two wings would later split the nationalist movement. politics / society ●●●

July 1944 Keynes loses the argument to Harry Dexter White 1 cit. John Maynard Keynes, leading the British delegation, proposed an International Clearing Union and a neutral reserve unit he called bancor to spread the burden of adjustment between creditors and debtors. The American negotiator Harry Dexter White rejected the plan in favor of a dollar-centered system, and the United States, holding most of the world's gold and capital, got the design it wanted. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●

1944 The Olenguruone Oath of Unity ai_extracted 1 cit. Kikuyu squatters resettled at the Olenguruone scheme resisted government farming rules for nine years. In 1944 they took an oath of unity based on the old KCA membership oath, later widened to include women and children and made more militant, a form of oathing that spread through the Rift Valley and gave shape to the Mau Mau oath. ●●

1944 Kibaki learns masonry and carpentry at Mathari Boarding School 1 cit. Between 1944 and 1946, Kibaki attended Mathari Boarding School, now Nyeri High School. The school taught vocational skills alongside academics, including masonry and carpentry used to repair furniture and maintain school buildings. This gives a concrete answer to the masonry question: Kibaki learned practical building skills at school, but his later career was economics and politics, not professional masonry. society ●●●

August 1945 Japan's defeat in World War II ai_extracted 1 cit. Japan's defeat in 1945 is widely regarded as a watershed heralding a new Japan, with burned-down cities and destroyed factories marking the end of the war in August 1945. ●●●●●

1945 to 1952 U.S. occupation of Japan ai_extracted 1 cit. The U.S. occupation, officially in charge until 1952, implemented reeducation and democratization, providing Japan with a new constitution, political parties, free elections including for women, and a market-oriented capitalist system. ●●●●

September 1945 Occupation Order No. 3 continues economic controls ai_extracted 1 cit. Order No. 3 of the occupation forces of September 1945 declared the continuation of Japan's wartime economic controls, and foreign currency rationing was reintroduced immediately. ●●●

December 1945 Munitions Ministry and Home Ministry broken up ai_extracted 1 cit. In December 1945 the occupation broke up the Munitions Ministry, the heart of the war economy, along with the powerful Home Ministry and its police apparatus including the Thought Police. ●●●

August 1945 to October 1945 Araki appointed BoJ deputy governor, then governor ai_extracted 1 cit. Immediately after Japan's defeat in August 1945, Eikichi Araki, former wartime head of the Banking Department, was appointed deputy governor of the Bank of Japan, and two months later governor. ●●