Events, Verisoph

1967 Roberts presents the ARPANET plan at Michigan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bob Taylor convenes ARPA-funded researchers at the University of Michigan, where Larry Roberts presents the plan for a shared computer network. ●●

1967 Packet switching introduced at the Gatlinburg conference ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At a follow-up ARPA conference in Gatlinburg, Tennessee, an English engineer describes packet switching, a concept that reshapes the network design. ●●

1967 NASA's ATS-3 satellite photographs the whole Earth ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Prompted by Stewart Brand's button campaign, NASA's ATS-3 satellite captures a photo of the whole Earth, which becomes the Whole Earth Catalog's cover image. ●●

1967 Oginga Odinga publishes Not Yet Uhuru 1 cit. Kenya's first vice-president Oginga Odinga wrote that independence had not delivered the freedom fighters were promised, and that a compliant elite had inherited the colonial order while ordinary Kenyans and Mau Mau veterans were left out. The book's title, meaning 'not yet freedom', became a lasting phrase for the gap between formal independence and real change. It is offered here as Odinga's argument about his own country. politics / society ●●

October 1967 Arusha ceasefire ends the Shifta War 3 cit. Kenya and Somalia signed a ceasefire at Arusha that wound down the insurgency by 1968. The fighting stopped, but the north stayed under heavy security control and emergency-style rules for years afterward. The war left deep distrust between the region's Somalis and the Kenyan state. diplomacy / war ●●●

1967 Odinga publishes 'Not Yet Uhuru' 5 cit. Oginga Odinga published his autobiography, Not Yet Uhuru, meaning 'not yet freedom'. The book argued that independence had left ordinary Kenyans without the land and opportunity they had been promised, while a new elite prospered. Its title became shorthand for the sense that the revolution had stalled. politics / society ●●

1967 Ogot collects the traditions of the Luo 5 cit. Bethwell Allan Ogot's History of the Southern Luo gathered migration stories, genealogies, and clan traditions into a documented account of settlement from about 1500. It was among the first major histories of a Kenyan people written by an African scholar using their own oral record. Ogot helped build a school of Kenyan history that took spoken memory seriously as a source. culture / society ●●●

1967 Horticulture becomes the postcolonial export edge 1 cit. The Horticultural Crops Development Authority was created in 1967 to promote horticultural produce, cash-crop diversification, nutrition, employment and foreign exchange. This later fed the flower, vegetable and fresh-produce export economy. It also kept the land question alive because intensive horticulture concentrates water, labour, cold-chain logistics and titled land. economy / politics ●●●

February 1967 The Arusha Declaration commits Tanzania to socialism and self-reliance 1 cit. TANU issued the Arusha Declaration in February 1967, making socialism and self-reliance the ideological centre of Tanzania under Julius Nyerere. Unlike Kenya, Tanzania openly attacked capitalist accumulation by leaders, called for public control of major means of production and built Ujamaa as a national development doctrine. economy / politics / society ●●●●

1 July 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons wikidata 2 cit. international treaty limiting the spread of nuclear weapons (1968) ●●●

16 January 1968 Withdrawal from East of Suez 1 cit. Britain announced it would pull its military forces from bases east of the Suez Canal by 1971. The decision confirmed the end of Britain's role as a global military power. politics / war ●●●

4 April 1968 Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. 1 cit. The civil rights leader was shot dead on a motel balcony, setting off grief and unrest across the country. His murder cut short a movement that had reshaped American law and conscience. politics / society ●●●

1968 Jackson coins the hidden curriculum 2 cit. In Life in Classrooms, Philip W. Jackson names the hidden curriculum: the unwritten lessons of school life, the crowds, praise, and power that teach children to wait, conform, and accept authority alongside the official subjects. culture / politics / society ●●●●

1968 Brzezinski publishes Between Two Ages ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Wood dates Brzezinski's book Between Two Ages: America's Role in the Technetronic Era to 1968, written while he was a Columbia professor. Wood argues the book endeared Brzezinski to David Rockefeller. ●●

1968 James Koerner publishes Who Controls American Education? ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites James Koerner's 1968 book Who Controls American Education?, a guide to the players and processes of the school system. He faults it for avoiding the question of schooling's ultimate purpose. ●●

1968 Tet Offensive stuns the United States ai_extracted 2 cit. no story On the lunar new year, 400,000 communist troops attacked cities and bases across South Vietnam. The surprise assault was a devastating psychological defeat. ●●

1968 Robert Kennedy assassinated on the campaign trail ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Senator Robert Kennedy was murdered during his presidential campaign. Helms was shocked but not saddened, given their bitter history. ●●

1968 Nixon wins the presidency and keeps Helms ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After winning the election, Nixon asked Johnson whether he should retain Richard Helms. Johnson praised Helms as loyal and competent. ●●

1968 Panamanian military seizes power in bloodless coup ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1968, Panamanian military officers seized power in a bloodless coup (1968) ●●

1968 Israel Corporation founded at Jerusalem summit ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At a 1968 economic summit in Jerusalem, Siegmund emerged as the guiding spirit behind the Israel Corporation, which was to funnel foreign capital... ●●

1968 Soviet party resolution criticizes state research ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party passes a resolution in October criticizing Soviet research and development and initiating reforms to improve scientific productivity and accelerate technological innovation. ●●

1968 Student protests erupt in Poland ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Student protests and political unrest erupt in Poland in March, inspired partly by a theoretical critique of Polish communism written by Warsaw sociologists Kuron and Modzelewski. ●●

1968 Soviet Union invades Czechoslovakia ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Soviet Union intervenes militarily in Czechoslovakia to suppress democratic reforms and liberalization. Brzezinski views this as a crucial turning point, believing that a democratic Czechoslovakia would have significantly affected the trajectory of European communism. ●●

1968 Tet Offensive begins in Vietnam ai_extracted 1 cit. no story function of such “flak machines” as Freedom House is to ensure that the press stays within the bounds of this patriotic agenda. The Tet offensive of January 1968 began on January 21 with a siege by North Vietnamese (NVA) regulars of a U.S. military ●●

1968 Heavy US bombing of Laos's Plain of Jars ai_extracted 1 cit. no story LAOS Laos’s Plain of Jars was subjected to some of the heaviest bombings of civilian targets in history, especially after 1968, when Washington was compelled under domestic pressure to enter negotiat ●●

1968 UN conference affirms family planning as a human right ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This consensus was codified at a 1968 UN conference, which proclaimed that “parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children.” Point... ●●

1968 Manson sends Bruce Davis to London ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Levenda states that Bruce Davis was sent to London by Charles Manson in November 1968, shortly after the murders of Clida Delaney and Nancy Warren. ●●

1968 Tet Offensive launched in Vietnam ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Levenda asserts that in January 1968, the Tet Offensive showed America that the war in Vietnam was far from over, with Walter Cronkite expressing shock. ●●

1968 Richard Nixon elected President ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Levenda notes that in November 1968, Richard M. Nixon was elected President of the United States, ending what he calls a period of Democratic dominance. ●●

1968 Beatles release the White Album ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Levenda asserts that the Beatles released the White Album in 1968 on November 22, the fifth anniversary of President Kennedy's assassination, which Manson believed contained messages to him about Helter Skelter. ●●

1968 Engelbart stages the Mother of All Demos ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Doug Engelbart and Stewart Brand staged a landmark public demonstration of Engelbart's oNLine System in December 1968. ●●

1968 Intel is founded ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Intel was founded the same turbulent year that saw the Tet Offensive and the first Whole Earth Catalog. ●●

1968 Gates and Allen form the Lakeside Programming Group ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bill Gates and Paul Allen formed a group of student programmers at Lakeside School. ●●

1968 Noyce and Moore found Intel ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore leave Fairchild to start Integrated Electronics Corporation, soon shortened to Intel. ●●

1968 BBN selected to build the ARPANET's routers ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Larry Roberts picks Bolt, Beranek and Newman over Raytheon to build the Interface Message Processors that will route ARPANET traffic. ●●

1968 Group ranch law turns pastoral commons into registered blocks 1 cit. Kenya's group ranch framework gave pastoral communities a way to hold land through registered representatives after independence. It was supposed to protect Maasai land from outsiders while keeping wide grazing areas intact. It also made flexible pastoral territory legible to the state, with committees, boundaries and membership lists that could later be disputed, captured or broken into private titles. economy / politics / society ●●●●

1968 Kenya Armed Forces replace the Kenya Military Forces 1 cit. In 1968, Kenya repealed the law that had created the Kenya Military Forces and replaced it with a law creating the Kenya Armed Forces. The legal name changed, but the underlying structure still carried the colonial military, police and intelligence inheritance created during the protectorate, colony and Emergency. politics / war ●●●

20 July 1969 Apollo 11 Moon landing 1 cit. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walk on the Moon while hundreds of millions watch on television. Humanity reaches another world for the first time, the defining triumph of the space age. exploration / technology ●●●●

1969 EPA established under the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Congress created the Environmental Protection Agency under the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969. The Act required federal agencies to weigh the environmental impacts of their proposed actions. ●●

1969 Caleb Gattegno demonstrates his reading system ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto recounts that in 1969 the reading-system promoter Caleb Gattegno was brought to his middle school to demonstrate a color-cue method, a demonstration that ended when a student clawed his face. ●●

1969 Helms erases a passage from a Soviet nuclear estimate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Under White House pressure, Helms deleted a key finding from the CIA's most important estimate on Soviet nuclear forces. Analysts said he had compromised the agency's core duty. ●●

1969 CIA stages the appearance of democracy in Thailand ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Covert action code-named Lotus manufactured an election for Thailand's ruling junta. The generals soon suspended the constitution again. ●●

1969 CIA abandons the Tibetan resistance ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Kissinger questioned the value of supporting Tibet's insurgents as Nixon planned rapprochement with China. The armed resistance was abandoned though the Dalai Lama's subsidy continued. ●●

1969 Allen Dulles dies at Walter Reed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Allen Dulles dies from influenza complicated by pneumonia at Walter Reed Army Medical Center. His room is located near the one where his brother Foster died ten years earlier. ●●

1969 Soviet-Chinese clash at Damansky Island ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A serious military clash occurred between Soviet and Chinese forces at Damansky Island, causing the Soviet Union to dramatically increase troop deployments along the Chinese border. ●●

1969 Nixon becomes US President ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Richard Nixon became president in January 1969 and immediately began reassessing American Cold War strategy toward pragmatic diplomacy with rival superpowers. ●●

1969 US troops in Vietnam peak at 542,000 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story American military presence in Vietnam reached its maximum of 542,000 troops, yet generals demanded even more soldiers to defeat North Vietnamese forces. ●●

20 July 1969 The Nazi rocketeer's rocket reaches the Moon 1 cit. Apollo 11 lands on the Moon atop von Braun's Saturn V, the culmination of a career that began with Hitler's missiles. One of the twentieth century's greatest achievements rested on one of its darkest bargains. science / technology ●●●●

1969 Sesame Street begins broadcasting ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Sesame Street, an innovative educational television program combining entertainment with instruction, began broadcasting. The show was embraced by children, parents, and educators as a solution to teaching American children to read while entertaining them. ●●

1969 Montreal students destroy university computer in protest ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In an act of protest against the system, rioting students in Montreal destroy a one-million-dollar university computer with fireaxes, exemplifying radical rejection of technology. ●●

1969 Willy Brandt elected West German Chancellor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Until Willy Brandt was elected Chancellor in September 1969, successive West German governments had insisted that the sole legitimate German government resided in Bonn. ●●

1969 Secretary Rogers presents Middle East peace plan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1969, Secretary Rogers presented a plan, subsequently named after him, which endorsed Israel’s 1967 borders with “minor” rectifications in return for a comprehensive peace agreement. ●●

1969 My Lai massacre exposed in the press ai_extracted 1 cit. no story f the exposures that have since become the standard version of the Hué massacre, a few days after the belated exposure of the My Lai massacre in late November 1969, when ●●

1969 Graduate students found the journal Concerned Demography ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1969, graduate students at Wisconsin, Michigan, and Cornell founded the journal Con- cerned Demography, complaining that “demographers are being used as ad- ministrators and public relations men... ●●

1969 Draper publishes population report for the UNA-USA ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Together with Rockefeller, Hannah, Woods, and other heavy hitters, Draper published a tough report in May 1969 for the United Nations Association of the United States. ●●

1969 Qaddafi overthrows the Libyan monarchy in coup ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 1 September 1969, Captain Muammar el-Qaddafi had led a group of fellow offi- cers in a bloodless overthrow of the mon ●●

1969 Anthony Gibbons imprisoned at Brayton ranch ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Levenda asserts that six-year-old Anthony Gibbons was imprisoned in a packing crate at the Brayton 'ranch' starting May 23, 1969, allegedly for allegedly burning down a building. ●●

1969 Nixon orders bombing of Cambodia ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Levenda states that in March, less than two months after his inauguration, President Nixon ordered the bombing of Cambodia. ●●

1969 Disneyland's Haunted Mansion opens ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Levenda notes that on August 9, 1969 (the day of the Tate murders), Disneyland opened their Haunted House ride, which he presents as a meaningful coincidence. ●●

1969 Spahn Ranch raided, Manson arrested ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Levenda notes that when the Spahn Ranch was raided on August 16, 1969 (seven days after the Tate murders), Manson was arrested on auto-theft charges with 102 law enforcement personnel involved. ●●

1969 PDP-10 installed at Harvard's Aiken Lab ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A DARPA-funded PDP-10 destined for Vietnam was quietly installed at Harvard to avoid antiwar protest. ●●

1969 Steve Crocker issues the first Request for Comments ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Graduate student Steve Crocker mails out RFC 1, launching the open, collegial process by which the ARPANET's protocols are developed. ●●

1969 ARPANET sends its first message ai_extracted 1 cit. A UCLA undergraduate connects to a computer at Stanford Research Institute over the new ARPANET, transmitting the word "Lo" before the system crashes. ●●

October 1969 Turn to a one-party state 1 cit. After Odinga's opposition Kenya People's Union gained support, the government banned it and detained its leaders, and troops fired on a crowd at Kisumu during a Kenyatta visit, killing a disputed number of people. With the KPU gone, Kenya became a de facto one-party state under KANU. Political dissent was pushed out of the open and into the shadows, setting a pattern that outlasted Kenyatta. politics ●●

5 July 1969 Tom Mboya gunned down on a Nairobi street 11 cit. Tom Mboya, the Luo trade unionist and Minister for Economic Planning and Development, was shot dead outside a pharmacy on Government Road in central Nairobi. At 38 he was one of the most capable figures in government and was widely seen as a possible future president. His death removed the leading Luo voice at the centre of national politics. politics / society ●●●

July 1969 Mboya's killing inflames Kikuyu-Luo tension 5 cit. Because the convicted killer was Kikuyu and the victim a rising Luo leader, the murder was widely read through an ethnic lens and hardened the split between the two communities. Many Luo took it as a sign that their leaders would not be allowed near real power. The bitterness fed directly into the confrontations that followed later in the year. politics / society ●●

25 October 1969 Kisumu massacre during Kenyatta's visit 5 cit. President Jomo Kenyatta travelled to Kisumu to open the new Nyanza Provincial General Hospital, months after Mboya's death and amid open anger in the region. A hostile crowd jeered him and voiced support for Odinga's opposition party, and his guards and police then opened fire. Official figures put the dead at 11, while other accounts run to around 100, some killed far from the scene. politics / society ●●●

October 1969 Opposition banned and Odinga detained after Kisumu 5 cit. In the days after the Kisumu shootings the government banned the Kenya People's Union, the main opposition party, and detained Oginga Odinga and other leaders without trial. Kenya was left effectively a one-party state under KANU. The move closed off the main legal outlet for dissent and deepened the sense that the centre would not tolerate rivals. politics ●●

c. 1969 ADC farms keep large-scale agriculture in the Kitale region 4 cit. After independence, the Agricultural Development Corporation and related state-linked bodies became major actors in the former settler farming belt. In the Kitale region, ADC farms at Sabwani, Japata, Suam and Chorlim kept large-scale seed maize, wheat, dairy and livestock production tied to the old highland farm structure. economy / politics ●●●

1969 Kibaki becomes Finance Minister 1 cit. After the 1969 election, Kibaki continued in the Kenyatta government as Minister of Finance and Economic Planning. Official accounts say he held the finance docket for 13 years, spanning late Kenyatta and early Moi rule. The period fixed his reputation as Kenya's most prominent economist-politician. economy / politics ●●●●●

1970 Japan becomes the world's second-largest economy ai_extracted 1 cit. Between 1960 and 1970 Japan's real GDP rose 2.6 times, and by 1970 it had overtaken Germany to become the number two economic power in the world. ●●●●

1970 Zenith files dumping suit against Japanese television makers ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1970 the U.S. television maker Zenith filed a suit charging that Japan was dumping television sets in the United States, an early episode in the escalating U.S.-Japan trade disputes. ●●

1970 The Late, Great Planet Earth published ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Hal Lindsey and Carole Carlson published The Late, Great Planet Earth in 1970, which linked Bible prophecy to current events and became a bestseller. Wood uses it to discuss the rise and later decline of interest in prophecy. ●●

1970 Brzezinski publishes 'Between Two Ages' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites Zbigniew Brzezinski's 1970 book Between Two Ages, which he reads as full of Fabian ideas: distrust of popular power, elite administration of the world, and predictions of pervasive surveillance and information control. ●●

1970 Nixon orders the CIA to hit the Soviets hard ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In an Oval Office meeting Nixon urged Helms to strike at the Soviets anywhere in the world. He was as emphatic as Helms had ever seen him. ●●

1970 CIA pours millions into Italian politics ai_extracted 1 cit. no story With Nixon's approval, Ambassador Graham Martin oversaw distributing $25 million to Christian Democrats and neofascists. The money helped fuel a failed neofascist coup. ●●

1970 Secret US bombing of Cambodia begins ai_extracted 1 cit. no story American B-52s dropped over a hundred thousand tons of bombs on suspected communist camps in neutral Cambodia. The targets were wrongly identified as a hidden command center. ●●

1970 Salvador Allende wins the Chilean presidency ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Allende won a narrow three-way election with under 37 percent of the vote. Chilean law required Congress to ratify the result. ●●

1970 Nixon secretly orders a coup to stop Allende ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Nixon directed Helms to mount a military coup against Allende without telling his own cabinet. Helms was given millions and just weeks to act. ●●

1970 Chilean army chief General Schneider ambushed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Armed men attacked and mortally wounded General Rene Schneider, who had defended the constitution. He died as Congress confirmed Allende. ●●

1970 Congress confirms Allende as president of Chile ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Despite CIA efforts, the Chilean Congress affirmed Allende's election by a wide vote. The plot to prevent his inauguration had failed. ●●

1970 CIA covert operations against Allende in Chile ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Between 1970 and 1973, the CIA carried out a wide-ranging series of covert operations in Chile (1970) ●●

1970 Corn blight epidemic strikes the United States ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A devastating corn blight epidemic struck the United States in 1970, demonstrating the vulnerabilities created by genetic uniformity in monoculture agriculture. ●●

1970 Mao seats Edgar Snow at National Day parade ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Mao’s gesture of placing Snow next to him on the reviewing stand at the Chinese Independence Day parade in October 1970 was lost on us. ●●

1970 Coup overthrows Prince Sihanouk in Cambodia ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ccords afforded no recognition to the anti-French resistance in Cambodia, a source of much bitterness. The country was ruled by Prince Sihanouk until March 1970, when he was overthrown in a coup supported by the United States.41 Throughout this perio ●●

1970 Twenty-seven countries commit to cutting birth rates ai_extracted 1 cit. no story tal interest of both the nation and the family.” By 1970, twenty-seven countries had committed to cutting birth rates.2 The population control movement was trying to control the population of the w... ●●

1970 IMF creates the Special Drawing Right ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1970, the IMF created a new monetary unit called the SDR, or Special Drawing Right ●●

1970 Jimi Hendrix found dead in London ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On September 18, 1970, Jimi Hendrix is found dead of a drug overdose in the London apartment of his German girlfriend, with Scotland Yard investigation documents sealed ●●

1970 McCarthy outlines his time-sharing vision ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John McCarthy delivered a paper describing a future of dumb terminals connected to time-shared mainframes. ●●

1970 Xerox founds the Palo Alto Research Center ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Xerox founded a dedicated research lab, Xerox PARC, away from corporate headquarters. ●●

c. 1970 The Kenyatta Family and Elite Landholding 1 cit. The Kenyatta family became one of the largest landowners in the country, accumulating estates across the former White Highlands and the coast, and other leading families did the same. This concentration of land at the top, documented by researchers and later inquiries, is offered as evidence that independence transferred settler wealth to an African elite rather than to the people who had fought and lost land. The landless of Central Province and the Rift Valley remained landless. economy / politics ●●●

c. 1970 El Molo intermarriage and the shift to Samburu speech 5 cit. Through the twentieth century the El Molo increasingly married Samburu, Turkana, and Rendille neighbours and took up the Samburu language in daily life. As numbers recovered, distinct El Molo ancestry grew rarer and the community absorbed the customs of surrounding pastoralists. The old Cushitic tongue slipped out of everyday use. culture / society ●●

1970 Black Journal contrasts Kenya capitalism with Tanzania Ujamaa 3 cit. In 1970, Black Journal presented Kenya and Tanzania as two different postcolonial choices. Kenya appears as market-friendly, private-property and foreign-capital oriented; Tanzania appears through Ujamaa, self-reliance and village socialism. The video is useful because it captures the contrast while both projects were still being sold as living futures, not later hindsight. culture / economy / politics ●●●

1970s Japan's first postwar bubble economy ai_extracted 1 cit. In the 1970s the Bank of Japan used window guidance to order banks to expand credit to speculative real estate borrowers, causing land prices to soar and Japan's first postwar bubble, followed by recession. ●●●

1971 End of the Bretton Woods system ai_extracted 1 cit. Under the Bretton Woods system, which lasted until 1971, much of the world had fixed exchange rates with the U.S. dollar, forcing other countries to accept dollars at given rates while the United States printed large amounts of them. ●●●●

August 1971 Nixon shock ends dollar-gold convertibility ai_extracted 1 cit. In August 1971, after France demanded conversion of its dollars into gold, the United States suspended the convertibility of dollars into gold, collapsing the fixed exchange rate system and sending the dollar sharply lower. ●●●●●

December 1971 Smithsonian Agreement fixes the yen at 308 per dollar ai_extracted 1 cit. After the yen rose following the Nixon shock, the short-lived Smithsonian Agreement of December 1971 fixed the yen at 308 to the dollar. ●●●

1971 The microprocessor 4 cit. Intel released the 4004, the first commercial microprocessor, putting a computer's processing on a single chip. Cheap microprocessors made personal computers, phones and countless devices possible. technology ●●●●●

15 August 1971 to 1973 The collapse of the Bretton Woods exchange system 1 cit. When the United States ended the dollar's convertibility to gold in 1971, the system of fixed exchange rates the IMF was built to police broke down. The Fund reinvented itself around crisis lending and policy advice. economy / politics ●●●

1971 Nixon decouples the US dollar from gold ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1971 President Richard Nixon ended the dollar's convertibility to gold, ushering in the era of fiat currency. Wood frames this as setting the stage for a future energy-based Carbon Currency. ●●