Events, Verisoph

1988 Geneva Accords commit to Soviet withdrawal ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On April 14, 1988, the Geneva Accords were signed by Afghanistan's communist-led regime, Pakistan, the United States, and the Soviet Union. The accords formally committed to Soviet troop withdrawal from Afghanistan, though the Afghan rebels had no role in negotiations. ●●

1988 Soviet troops begin withdrawal from Jalalabad ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In May 1988, the first Soviet troops began rolling out of Jalalabad. Some twelve thousand men and their equipment withdrew as part of the formal Soviet pullout. CIA officers and ISI brigadiers worked to prevent rebel commanders from attacking the retreating Soviet forces. ●●

1988 Florida grand juries indict Noriega on drug charges ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Then, early in 1988, two grand juries in Florida handed up criminal indictments charging Noriega and more than a dozen others, including Pablo Escobar (1988) ●●

1988 Morgan Grenfell shuts its securities operation ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On December 6, 1988, Morgan Grenfell abruptly shut its securities operation, ending its chances of becoming an integrated global investment bank. There was a wholesale firing of 450 people, or a quarter of its entire payroll—one of the biggest sac... ●●

1988 Morgan bank borrows $400 million from Dai-Ichi Mutual ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1989, the bank had outgrown its shrine at 23 Wall. Lew Preston wanted a personal computer on every banker’s desk, and trading desks required an exotic jungle of electric wiring. To accommodate a high-tech bank, Morgans bought a new forty-seven-... ●●

1988 Yellowstone fire burns nearly 800,000 acres ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The public began to take notice after the huge Yellowstone fire in 1988, which ended up burning nearly eight hundred thousand acres and took several months to control. ●●

1988 Russian Church canonizes Andrei Rublev ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Russian Orthodox Church declares Rublev a saint during millennium celebrations for conversion of Prince Vladimir. ●●

1988 Geneva Accords set the terms of the Soviet withdrawal ai_extracted 1 cit. On April 14, 1988, Afghanistan's communist government, Pakistan, the U.S., and the Soviet Union signed the Geneva Accords formalizing the Soviet pullout. The mujahedin were excluded, and under a formula called "positive symmetry" the CIA kept arming them as long as Moscow supplied Kabul. ●●●

1988 President Zia and the U.S. ambassador die in a plane crash ai_extracted 1 cit. On August 17, 1988, Pakistani dictator Mohammed Zia-ul-Haq died when his C-130 crashed after a tank demonstration near Bhawalpur. Also killed were ISI chief General Akhtar, U.S. ambassador Arnold Raphel, and much of Pakistan's senior military brass; the cause was never established. ●●

1988 Kibaki is dropped as Vice President and moved to Health 1 cit. After the 1988 elections, Moi dropped Kibaki as Vice President and appointed him Minister for Health. This demotion pushed Kibaki further from Moi's inner circle, but he did not immediately resign. He stayed in government until the return of multiparty politics opened a different route. politics ●●●●

1989 Yasushi Mieno becomes Bank of Japan governor ai_extracted 1 cit. Yasushi Mieno became governor of the Bank of Japan in 1989, with Haruo Maekawa having become governor ten years earlier; both had long been tipped as certain successors. ●●●

1989 Peak of the Japanese asset bubble ai_extracted 1 cit. By 1989 speculative credit had pushed asset prices to extremes: the land surrounding the Imperial Palace in Tokyo had the same market value as the entire state of California. ●●●

1989 End of the Showa era ai_extracted 1 cit. The Showa era, the official calendar of Emperor Hirohito's reign, ended in 1989, sixty-four years after it began; Hirohito had remained in office after 1945, exchanging his military uniform for civilian clothes. ●●●

December 1989 Nikkei peaks at all-time high of 38,915 ai_extracted 1 cit. After rising an average 30 percent per year from 1984, the Nikkei 225 stock index peaked at an all-time high of 38,915 yen in December 1989. ●●●●

1989 Bubble lending reaches 27 percent of all bank loans ai_extracted 1 cit. By the end of 1989, loans to real estate, construction, and nonbank financial institutions used for speculation totaled 27 percent of all bank loans, some 98.9 trillion yen or 25 percent of nominal GDP. ●●●

1989 Banks suddenly restrict loan growth ai_extracted 1 cit. In mid-1989 Japanese banks suddenly restricted loan growth, cutting off the flow of new money into asset markets; stock prices peaked half a year later and land prices stopped rising. ●●●

December 1989 to 1994 Mieno becomes BoJ governor ai_extracted 1 cit. Yasushi Mieno served as governor of the Bank of Japan from December 1989 to 1994, determined to end the bubble he blamed for dividing Japan into haves and have-nots. ●●●

December 1989 Mieno's 'Christmas present' rate hike ends the bubble ai_extracted 1 cit. Only a fortnight after becoming governor, Mieno raised the official discount rate in December 1989, the infamous Christmas present; asset prices began tumbling in 1990 and land prices eventually fell around 80 percent. ●●●●

June 1989 BoJ tightens window guidance and ends the bubble ai_extracted 1 cit. The Bank of Japan ended the bubble by suddenly tightening its window guidance credit controls in June 1989, an act the author identifies as the trigger of the recession of the 1990s. ●●●●

1989 Death of Haruo Maekawa ai_extracted 1 cit. Former Bank of Japan governor Haruo Maekawa died in 1989, but his chosen successors Mieno and Fukui remained in power at the central bank. ●●

1989 Mieno appointed governor of the Bank of Japan ai_extracted 1 cit. Yasushi Mieno was appointed official governor of the Bank of Japan in 1989, with observers noting parallels between his career and that of former governor Sasaki. ●●●

July 1989 to 28 July 1990 Structural Impediments Initiative ai_extracted 1 cit. The bilateral U.S.-Japan Structural Impediments Initiative was launched in July 1989 and released its final report on July 28, 1990, detailing U.S. structural reform demands. ●●●

9 November 1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall 1 cit. East Germany opens its border and crowds tear at the Berlin Wall. Communist rule across Eastern Europe collapses within months, ending the Cold War division of the continent. politics ●●●●●

1989 The Washington Consensus is named 1 cit. Economist John Williamson coined the term Washington Consensus to describe a set of market-oriented policies favored by the IMF, World Bank, and US Treasury. The label came to stand, often critically, for the whole adjustment agenda. economy / politics ●●●●●

1989 Campaign to change mathematics teaching launched ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Citing Tom Loveless, Gatto argues that in 1989 a group of math-education experts launched a campaign to change the content and teaching of mathematics, which he sees as a deliberate de-emphasis of math skills. ●●

1989 Gatto's grant to pay students, 1989 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto recounts that in 1989 he secured a foundation grant to pay his students cash for work they had done for free, an experiment that backfired. ●●

1989 Last Soviet soldier leaves Afghanistan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Soviet occupation of Afghanistan ended as the last soldier withdrew. The CIA's weapons kept flowing to radical Afghan factions, seeding forces that would become al Qaeda. ●●

1989 George H. W. Bush sworn in as president ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The CIA celebrated as Bush, the only president who had run the agency, took office. He became his own director of central intelligence and demanded daily briefings from professionals. ●●

1989 U.S. invades Panama to seize Noriega ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the CIA repeatedly failed to unseat its old ally Manuel Noriega, the United States mounted its biggest military operation since the fall of Saigon. Special Forces fought through Panama City to arrest the dictator. ●●

1989 Noriega annuls Endara's election victory ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When an opposition figure, Guillermo Endara, won the presidential election held in May 1989, Noriega simply ignored the result and imposed his own can (1989) ●●

1989 Soviet Troops Withdraw from Afghanistan ai_extracted 2 cit. The last Soviet military units withdrew from Afghanistan on February 15, 1989, crossing back into Soviet territory after nearly a decade of occupation. ●●

1989 Morgan Grenfell reports its first annual loss ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On December 6, 1988, Morgan Grenfell abruptly shut its securities operation, ending its chances of becoming an integrated global investment bank. There was a wholesale firing of 450 people, or a quarter of its entire payroll—one of the biggest sac... ●●

1989 Pittston miners' strike begins ai_extracted 1 cit. In a notable illustration of the applicability of the propaganda model, the nine-month-long Pittston miners’ strike that began in April 1989 was accorded much less attention, and less friendly treatme ●●

1989 Tiananmen protests and the 1989 crackdown ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The contemporaneous Gorbachev reforms in the former Soviet Union inspired the Tiananmen protest movement and the government’s bloody crackdown in June 1989. ●●

1989 China permits village elections ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Chinese government has permitted village elections in rural areas since 1989 to elect village committees and village leaders with certain limited local powers. ●●

1989 FMLN guerrillas launch major offensive in El Salvador ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A major offensive launched by the guerrillas in late 1989—in which they “brought the war home” to wealthy neighborhoods ●●

1989 Berners-Lee proposes the World Wide Web to CERN ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Berners-Lee formally proposed his hypertext networking design to CERN managers. ●●

November 1989 The screening exercise and the pink card 3 cit. The government ran a screening drive that forced ethnic Somalis to appear before committees and prove they were citizens, singling them out by ethnicity while others were not screened. Those cleared were issued a special pink verification card they had to carry on top of the national ID. People judged non-citizens were detained and many were deported, and the pink card became a lasting mark of second-class status. politics / society ●●●

1989 NCPB turns maize into state food politics 1 cit. The National Cereals and Produce Board system made maize a political crop: depots, agents, prices, payments, imports, storage and strategic reserves all ran through state machinery. This gave farmers a buyer and the country a grain buffer, but it also made maize vulnerable to patronage, delayed payments and politically timed supply decisions. economy / politics / society ●●●●

1990 Collapse of the Japanese bubble ai_extracted 1 cit. From 1990 onward bank loan growth slowed, asset prices fell, speculators went bankrupt, and about 100 trillion yen of loans turned into bad debts, pushing Japan into its worst recession since the Great Depression. ●●●●

1990 Japan becomes the world's top direct investor ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1990 Japanese foreign direct investment reached $48 billion, overtaking portfolio investment, and Japan became the world's number one provider of direct investment. ●●●

March 1990 Unemployment hits record low of 2 percent ai_extracted 1 cit. At the height of the boom's labor shortage, Japanese unemployment fell to a record low of 2 percent in March 1990. ●●

January 1990 to December 1994 Asset prices collapse and the bust begins ai_extracted 1 cit. From January 1990 to December 1994 Japanese stock and land prices halved, bankruptcies soared to postwar highs, several banks and securities firms became insolvent, and the boom turned into the biggest slump since the 1930s. ●●●●

1990 Nikkei falls 32 percent in one year ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1990 the Nikkei 225 index dropped 32 percent and land prices began a sharp decline, with some speculative commercial plots losing 80 percent or more of their market value. ●●●

1990 to 1999 Decade of fiscal stimulus packages ai_extracted 1 cit. During the 1990s the Japanese government implemented over a dozen large-scale spending packages totaling more than 145 trillion yen, without producing a sustained recovery. ●●●

1990 Mieno publicly defies the Finance Ministry ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1990 Governor Mieno engaged in a rare high-profile disagreement with the Finance Ministry, which opposed monetary tightening, and stuck to his tight money policy throughout his term. ●●

1990 Ministry of Finance total volume regulation of bank lending ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1990 the Ministry of Finance imposed its sōryō kisei, a rare total volume regulation of bank lending, though it was administered by the Bank of Japan and followed the BoJ's earlier tightening of 1988-89. ●●●

1990 Holes appear in Gatto's classroom floor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto recounts that in October 1990 three holes appeared in the floor of his classroom at Booker T. Washington Junior High in Spanish Harlem. His attempt to fix them, blocked by bureaucracy for five months, becomes his illustration of school power fragmentation. ●●

1990 First government disclosure of Operation Gladio ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book says the first on-the-record government disclosure of Operation Gladio came in 1990, only because earlier denials could no longer hold. It presents the operation as hidden for more than forty years. ●●

1990 Iraq's invasion of Kuwait ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Saddam Hussein's Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990. Graeber notes Iraq was still paying reparations to Kuwait for the aggression. ●●

1990 Eagleburger mediates the Noriega standoff in Panama ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Deputy Secretary of State Lawrence Eagleburger arrived in Panama to mediate the standoff with General Noriega, who was holed up in the papal nunciatura. ●●

1990 Noriega surrenders to US forces in Panama ai_extracted 1 cit. no story General Manuel Noriega surrendered to U.S. forces on January 3 after spending eleven days hiding in the papal nunciatura. He was immediately arrested and transported to Miami for trial. ●●

1990 Bush proclaims a 'new world order' to Congress contested ai_extracted 1 cit. no story President George H.W. Bush addressed a joint session of Congress on September 11, 1990, at the start of the first Iraq War, describing the emergence of a 'new world order,' a phrase that later became subject to conspiracy theories. ●●

1990 Manly P. Hall dies ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Manly P. Hall, the legendary esoteric philosopher and author of The Secret Teachings of All Ages, died. In his final years, he was concerned that his work would be forgotten and his Los Angeles campus neglected. ●●

1990 Yeltsin declares Russia belongs in the West ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Speaking in Kiev on November 19, 1990, Yeltsin asserted Russia's belonging in the West and its intent to imitate Western development, explicitly repudiating the Russian imperial legacy. ●●

1990 France and Germany commit to a federal Europe ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On December 6, 1990, the French president and German chancellor committed themselves to the goal of a federal Europe, reflecting their determination to create stronger European unity. ●●

1990 Baltic States secede as the USSR disintegrates ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1990, the Baltic States seceded and the Soviet Union began to disintegrate. ●●

1990 FBI inaugurates the CODIS DNA database ai_extracted 1 cit. no story of criminals, suspects, arrestees and unidentified individuals whose DNA is found at crime scenes. The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Combined National DNA Index System (CODIS) was inaugurated in 1990 and has been steadily databasing DNA from criminal encounters. All fifty states have now passed ●●

1990 Sandinistas defeated in Nicaraguan elections ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 25 February 1990, the Sandinistas were defeated in national elections by a coali- tion of political parties running u ●●

1990 City of Freedom tent camp set up in Sofia ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A “City of Freedom” consisting of more than 60 tents was set up in the center of Sofia, occupied by people who said they ●●

1990 Berners-Lee completes the core tools of the Web ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By the end of 1990 Berners-Lee had built HTTP, HTML, a browser, and server software. ●●

1990 Mandela invokes Kimathi on his first visit to Kenya ai_extracted 1 cit. On his first visit to Kenya in July 1990, Nelson Mandela invoked Kimathi in a speech at Kasarani Stadium, saying the image of fighters like Kimathi had sustained him through 27 years of imprisonment. He lamented the absence of a proper burial site for Kimathi. ●●

February 1990 The murder of Foreign Minister Robert Ouko 5 cit. Foreign Minister Robert Ouko disappeared from his rural home and was found dead days later near Got Alila hill, shot and his body burned. A respected figure seen as a possible reformer, his killing shocked the country and drew British investigators. The perpetrators were never brought to justice, and the case became a symbol of impunity that hardened opposition to the government. politics ●●●

c. 1990 Mara group ranches are subdivided into private titles 2 cit. Group ranches around the Maasai Mara, including major blocks such as Koiyaki and Lemek, came under pressure to subdivide into individual parcels. Many landowners wanted title deeds, inheritance security and a direct share of rising land values, while others feared committee capture and elite dealing. The result fragmented open grazing land into marketable private plots, making it easier to sell, fence, farm or lease the land. economy / politics / society ●●●●

February 1990 Scotland Yard investigates Robert Ouko's murder 1 cit. After Foreign Minister Robert Ouko was found dead in February 1990, Kenya asked detectives from London's Metropolitan Police, commonly known through Scotland Yard, to investigate. The point is not that London solved Kenyan politics. The point is that a politically charged killing was seen as too compromised for domestic police credibility alone. politics / society ●●●

1991 Japan becomes a net capital importer ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1991 Japan suddenly turned from being the biggest net capital exporter ever to a net importer of capital, a reversal that defied traditional economic models. ●●●

1991 Japanese foreign investment tide reverses ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1991, even as the current account headed for record surpluses over $90 billion, Japan's long-term capital outflows vanished and the country recorded $40 billion of net inflows, its first in more than a decade, becoming a net seller of foreign assets. ●●●

1991 Japan slides into its longest postwar recession ai_extracted 1 cit. With paralyzed banks shrinking credit creation, Japan's economy slid from 1991 into the longest and deepest postwar recession since the 1930s, with unemployment at postwar records and probably more than five million jobs lost. ●●●●

July 1991 BoJ begins cutting the official discount rate ai_extracted 1 cit. Starting with the first reduction in July 1991, when the rate stood at 6 percent, the Bank of Japan lowered the official discount rate ten times during the 1990s, reaching 1.75 percent by September 1993 and 0.5 percent by September 1995. ●●●

1991 to 1992 U.S. recession of 1991 and rapid Fed reflation ai_extracted 1 cit. After a credit boom turned to bust and bad debts paralyzed U.S. banks, real GDP contracted about 1 percent in 1991; the Federal Reserve printed money from 1990 onward and the economy had fully recovered by 1992. ●●●

July 1991 BoJ announces immediate abolition of window guidance ai_extracted 1 cit. In July 1991, shortly after publishing an English-language report claiming window guidance had not been applied since 1982, the Bank of Japan announced that window guidance would be abolished immediately. ●●●

1991 EMEAP central bank club formed ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1991 the eleven central banks of the East Asia and Pacific region formed the Executives' Meeting of East Asia-Pacific Central Banks (EMEAP), a low-profile club whose deputy governors met twice a year. ●●

1991 Bank of Japan declares window guidance abolished ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1991 the chief of the Bank of Japan's Banking Department, Tamura, told the press that the abolition of window guidance was final and that it would never be reinstituted. ●●●

July 1991 to September 1995 Bank of Japan begins 1990s rate-cutting cycle ai_extracted 1 cit. The Bank of Japan lowered the official discount rate ten times during the 1990s, starting with the first cut in July 1991 from 6 percent, reaching 1.75 percent by September 1993 and 0.5 percent by September 1995. ●●●

1991 Gatto resigns from teaching ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After thirty years as a New York City teacher, Gatto quit on July 5, 1991. His resignation essay ran in The Wall Street Journal twenty days later. ●●

1991 Gulf War air campaign begins ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The seven-week air war on Iraq opened after Saddam's invasion of Kuwait. The CIA picked bombing targets until one it selected turned out to be a civilian air-raid shelter, killing hundreds. ●●

1991 Bill Clinton announces his 1992 presidential campaign ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton officially announced his candidacy for the 1992 Democratic presidential nomination, beginning a campaign with substantial Wall Street funding. ●●

1991 Bin Laden expelled from Saudi Arabia ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In spring 1991, the Saudi government, concerned about bin Laden's Islamic activism and radical statements, expelled him from the kingdom. According to various accounts, he was either ordered to leave or facilitated departure to attend an Islamic conference in Pakistan. He never returned to Saudi Arabia. ●●

1991 Soviet Union formally dissolves ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On August 19, 1991, hard-line Soviet communists attempted a coup against Mikhail Gorbachev. The coup failed, and within weeks the Communist Party collapsed as an effective political organization. The Soviet Union formally dissolved shortly thereafter. ●●

1991 U.S. and Soviet Union agree to end arms supplies to Afghanistan ai_extracted 2 cit. On September 13, 1991, U.S. Secretary of State James Baker and Soviet Foreign Minister Boris Pankin pledged a mutual cutoff of all arms to Najibullah and the Afghan rebels, effective January 1, 1992. The superpower agreement ended official support for both sides in the Afghan war. ●●

1991 Coalition begins bombing Iraq in the Gulf War ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 16, 1991, a 34-nation coalition led by the United States launched a bombing campaign against Iraqi military targets and forces occupying Kuwait. ●●

1991 Collapse of the Soviet Union ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The power structure became unipolar in the 1990s with the collapse of the Soviet Union and continuing growth of America's material capabilities ●●

1991 Soviet Union dissolved, replaced by the CIS ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In December 1991, the Soviet Union was dissolved by the heads of its Russian, Ukrainian, and Belorussian republics and formally replaced by the Commonwealth of Independent States. ●●

1991 Ukraine declares independence from the USSR ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Ukraine's declaration of independence in December 1991 and control over Soviet army units on its soil prevented the CIS from becoming a confederal USSR and set an example for other republics. ●●

1991 Panama signs treaty expanding US legal authority ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Eventually, after many American threats to cut off aid, Panama signed a treaty in April 1991 giving US authorities parti ●●

1991 Aristide takes office as president of Haiti ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The president-priest took office in February 1991 after a coup attempt against him in January failed ●●

1991 Torvalds announces the Linux kernel ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Linus Torvalds posted a message about his new kernel on the MINIX newsgroup. ●●

1991 Berners-Lee announces the Web on alt.hypertext ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Berners-Lee announced his hypertext project on an Internet newsgroup, sparking early interest. ●●

1991 William Cooper publishes Behold a Pale Horse ai_extracted 1 cit. no story William Cooper's conspiracy book "Behold a Pale Horse" was copyrighted and published in 1991, later becoming an influential and widely circulated fringe conspiracy text. ●●

December 1991 Return to multiparty democracy 1 cit. Under domestic pressure, symbolized by the 1990 Saba Saba protests, and with Western donors freezing aid, parliament repealed Section 2A in December 1991 and legalized opposition parties. Moi won the 1992 and 1997 elections against a divided opposition, amid vote rigging and state-linked ethnic clashes in the Rift Valley that killed and displaced thousands. Multiparty politics returned, but on a tilted field that kept KANU in power. politics ●●

January 1991 The fall of Siad Barre and the collapse of the state 1 cit. In January 1991 rebel factions drove Siad Barre out of Mogadishu, ending his rule and, with it, effective central government in Somalia. No group could replace him, and victorious militias split along clan lines and turned on each other. The country fell into warlordism and famine, becoming a byword for state collapse for the next two decades. politics / war ●●●

1991 Land clashes tear the Rift Valley at the return of multiparty politics 8 cit. As Kenya legalized opposition parties in 1991 and moved toward its first multiparty election in 1992, violence broke out in the Rift Valley between Kalenjin and Maasai groups and Kikuyu, Luo, Luhya, and Kisii settlers. At least a thousand people were killed and around two hundred thousand were driven from their homes. Human rights groups and later inquiries concluded the clashes were organized and encouraged by figures around the Moi government to punish opposition areas and clear land. The death toll and displacement are documented; the finding that officials instigated the violence comes from those inquiries and rights reports. politics / society / war ●●●

1991 The Dadaab refugee complex opens 4 cit. As Somalia's civil war drove people across the border, Kenya set up camps at Dadaab that grew into one of the largest refugee complexes in the world. The camps deepened official suspicion of the whole north-east and blurred, in the state's eyes, the line between refugees and Kenyan Somali citizens. Dadaab became central to how the region was policed and governed. politics / society ●●●

December 1991 Kibaki resigns from KANU and launches the Democratic Party 1 cit. In December 1991 Kibaki resigned from KANU and two days later launched the Democratic Party after the return of multiparty politics. The move made him a major opposition figure, but not inside FORD. That separate route mattered because the opposition entered 1992 divided. politics ●●●●●

1991 New Keynesian economics answers the market-clearing critique 2 cit. By the 1980s and early 1990s, New Keynesian economists rebuilt parts of Keynesian macroeconomics with microfoundations: sticky prices, imperfect competition, credit frictions, coordination failures and other reasons markets may not clear quickly. The result was not old Keynesianism restored unchanged, but a new mainstream synthesis. economy / science ●●●●

c. 1991 Uhuru marries Margaret Gakuo and forms the private first-family household 2 cit. Uhuru married Margaret Gakuo around the start of the 1990s; CIDOB places the marriage in 1991 and later profiles describe the couple as parents of three children: Jomo, Ngina and Jaba. Margarets own background matters politically too: Kianda School, Kenyatta University, education training, and the Gakuo railway-administration family. Uhuru was not only Jomo son; he also entered another elite household network. culture / politics / society ●●●

5 November 1992 European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages wikidata 1 cit. no story European treaty adopted in 1992 ●●●

1992 to 1999 Bank of Japan monetary contractions of the 1990s ai_extracted 1 cit. At several junctures in the 1990s, including 1992, 1993, early 1995, and much of 1999, the Bank of Japan actively reduced the amount of money circulating in the economy, aborting emerging recoveries. ●●●

1992 Credit crunch hits small firms ai_extracted 1 cit. As banks burdened with bad debts grew risk averse in the early 1990s, they cut lending to small and medium-sized firms, which suffered a credit crunch from 1992; unemployment began rising and consumption slumped. ●●●

1992 to 1994 Four massive fiscal stimulus packages ai_extracted 1 cit. Between 1992 and 1994 the Japanese government added four large fiscal stimulus packages totaling 45 trillion yen to regular spending, but without central bank credit expansion they failed to produce a recovery and only increased government debt. ●●●