Events, Verisoph

1933 Noting turmoil at home, he observed that revolutions, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Noting turmoil at home, he observed that revolutions, at the beginning, always smash beautiful monuments, but that one shouldn’t despair. In an image that strikingly foreshadowed his Pollyanna views o... ●●

1933 In an image that strikingly foreshadowed his Pollyanna rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In an image that strikingly foreshadowed his Pollyanna views of 1933, he wrote, “We may regard that as a mere token of a temporary political fever. ●●

1933 Ford retracts and apologizes for The International Jew ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Not only did Ford apologize to the Jews and retract the book, but he wrote to Fritsch, asking him to recall the German edition. Deaf to these pleas, Fritsch published The International Jew right until... ●●

1933 Among Jewish businessmen (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The last door clanged shut for German Jews just as life in Germany grew intolerable. Although Palestine had been the major mecca for emigration, a far... ●●

1933 CHAPTER 35––Deathwatch Even as the Warburgs sounded the ala... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Oral testimony from Warburg employees presents a mixed picture of Nazi meddling at the bank. In 1933, not a single employee belonged to the party, and... ●●

1933 CHAPTER 39––Our Aryan At the end of World War II (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story It seemed that Hitler had won and that the Jewish community in Germany would shortly be extinct. Around the world Jews boycotted Volkswagens and other... ●●

1933 Siegmund didn’t believe in collective guilt (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story We don’t allow people to park their cars here.”28 Things were soon straightened out and there were tearful reunions. But Anita could never forget the ... ●●

1933 Jacob Schiff’s widow, Therese, spoiled her grandchildren... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Jacob Schiff’s widow, Therese, spoiled her grandchildren terribly, leaving them, when she died in 1933, an estate of $4.6 million, plus a trust fund that had started out with $6 million in 1910. ●●

1933 In 1933, Eddie moved to New York and worked as a volunteer... (1933) candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1933, Eddie moved to New York and worked as a volunteer at MOMA, helping to found its film department and serving as its treasurer. ●●

1933 In late summer 1933, Lincoln Kirstein, just back from... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In late summer 1933, Lincoln Kirstein, just back from Europe, raced up to see Eddie at Woodlands. ●●

1933 When the boycott officially ended on April 4, German Jews... (1933) candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When the boycott officially ended on April 4, German Jews felt great relief and Max thought they had survived the worst of Hitler.36 Because of haunting newsreel images of goose-stepping soldiers and Nuremberg rallies, we forget that some semblance of normality remained for well-to-do Jews in large cities in 1933. ●●

1933 Angry and perplexed, he walked around muttering, “I am so... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Angry and perplexed, he walked around muttering, “I am so ashamed that this has happened.”28 Upset by events, he spent much of February and March 1933 at home with a heart spasm. ●●

1933 In his 1933 annual report, he told colleagues that they... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In his 1933 annual report, he told colleagues that they should defend the bank as a fortress and that “no Board seat that is taken from us should be regarded as definitely lost and every opportunity should be seized to regain these positions, even if success may yet be far off.”50 This combative attitude coincided with his belief in the transitory nature of the Nazis. ●●

1933 As he told Rabbi Stephen Wise in 1933, “Warburg, [Paul]... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As he told Rabbi Stephen Wise in 1933, “Warburg, [Paul] Baerwald (of the Joint Distribution Committee) and others who have relatives in Germany dare not say anything publicly.”15 This charge was baldly twisted by Wise who never missed a chance to knock the Warburgs. ●●

1933 On June 16, 1933, FDR told Ambassador Dodd, “The German... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On June 16, 1933, FDR told Ambassador Dodd, “The German authorities are treating the Jews shamefully, and the Jews in this country are greatly excited. ●●

1933 Jimmy found himself at the center of a gathering debate as... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Jimmy found himself at the center of a gathering debate as to how FDR should respond to Hitler, who also came to power in early 1933. ●●

1933 Then Jimmy received a message from Raymond Moley that... (1933) candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Then Jimmy received a message from Raymond Moley that changed his life: “Tell him [Warburg] it’s dead and bind up the wounds.”37 This foreshadowed Roosevelt’s message of July 3, 1933, in which he railed against the currency stabilization proposal as based on the “old fetishes of so-called international bankers.…”38 Belatedly, FDR had realized that currency stabilization might clash with his goal of stimulating higher farm prices. ●●

1933 In June 1933, the Jewish War Veterans slipped an observer... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In June 1933, the Jewish War Veterans slipped an observer into a rally of seven hundred people in Queens, New York, held in a swastika-draped garden restaurant. ●●

1933 Carl Melchior resigns from the BIS ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After all, I have been in the trenches now for twenty years.”7 In March 1933, Melchior resigned as a German representative to the Bank for International Settlements before Schacht pushed him out and stepped down as chairman of the Beiersdorf supervisory board.8 He didn’t regard the Nazis as amenable to reason. ●●

1933 Nazi book burning at the Berlin Opera House ai_extracted 2 cit. On May 10, 1933, students hurled books by Mann, Einstein, Proust, and Freud on a pyre outside the Berlin Opera House, followed five days later by an SS bonfire of books near Altona. ●●

1933 In March 1933, Siegmund went for a chat with Baron... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In March 1933, Siegmund went for a chat with Baron Konstantin von Neurath, the German foreign minister. ●●

1933 In 1933, his uncle, Otto Kaulla, a retired Stuttgart judge,... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1933, his uncle, Otto Kaulla, a retired Stuttgart judge, was roughed up by Nazi hooligans. ●●

1933 As Max told Felix in October 1933, “First and foremost... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As Max told Felix in October 1933, “First and foremost Siegmund and Eric will manage the new company in London.”45 The ambitious Siegmund must have recoiled at the idea of sharing leadership with his cousin. ●●

1933 By August 1933, lawyers in London had drawn up papers for a... (1933) candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By August 1933, lawyers in London had drawn up papers for a new firm, and Max went to London to brief Lionel de Rothschild and the Barings. ●●

1933 Nazis arrest educator Kurt Hahn ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In March 1933, the Nazis arrested Kurt and forbid further contact between him and his students. ●●

1933 As Ingrid said of the 1933 summer she and her family spent... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As Ingrid said of the 1933 summer she and her family spent there, “More than ever, Kösterberg was like a tranquil island.”22 With its consoling shade and beauty and ancient trees, the estate embodied the wealth and culture the Warburgs had enjoyed for generations. ●●

1933 One morning in December 1933, as the mist rose from the... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story One morning in December 1933, as the mist rose from the Elbe below, Ingrid wrote a long, anguished letter to Adam, saying that their friendship couldn’t survive his entry into the party even if it was meant to camouflage his political dissent. ●●

1933 In the twilight reality of 1933, the terror had an eerie... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the twilight reality of 1933, the terror had an eerie way of intruding from the shadows then disappearing—as if nothing had happened. ●●

1933 The Communist Daily Worker told its readers that Max came... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Communist Daily Worker told its readers that Max came to the United States representing the Nazi government and was “rewarded handsomely” by being named an “Honorary Aryan.”4 Echoing the old Sidney Warburg canard, the Yiddish paper Freiheit made the hurtful charge that Felix, a member of the Jewish bourgeoisie, had given the Nazis a seven-million-dollar loan in 1933.5 The libel of the “Honorary Aryan” circulated so widely that Felix felt obligated to respond in a letter to Samuel Untermyer, a distinguished Jewish lawyer. ●●

1933 To its everlasting shame, the United States would accept... (1933) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story To its everlasting shame, the United States would accept only 157,000 German Jews from 1933 to 1942—about the same number of Jews admitted in the single year of 1906.5 ——An ailing Felix Warburg attends a dinner for conductor Walter Damrosch, January 1937. ●●

1933 1. MMW Ma VI, letter from Max Warburg rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1. MMW Ma VI, letter from Max Warburg to Martin Buber, October 1, 1933. ●●

1933 4. LBI-RDJ, letter from 3 Cologne Jews to rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 4. LBI-RDJ, letter from 3 Cologne Jews to Max Warburg, August 24, 1933. ●●

1933 16. FW. B294 F16, letter from Dr. Walter rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 16. FW. B294 F16, letter from Dr. Walter Derenberg, August 20, 1933. ●●

1933 Their interpreter, sent along from Heidelberg, turned out to be Wolfgang Gentner rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Their interpreter, sent along from Heidelberg, turned out to be Wolfgang Gentner, the former Radium Institute student who had confirmed that Joliot’s Geiger counter was working properly when Joliot discovered artificial radioactivity in 1933. ●●

1933 Nothing in the record indicates the overestimate was deliberate, but it is worth rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Nothing in the record indicates the overestimate was deliberate, but it is worth noting that Walther Bothe, a protege of Max Planck, had been hounded from the directorship of the physics institute of the University of Heidelberg in 1933 because he was anti-Nazi. ●●

1933 All his great foreign policy triumphs occurred in ... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story All his great foreign policy triumphs occurred in the first five years of his rule, 1933–38, and were based on his victims’ assumption that his aim wa ●●

1933 November 29, 1933—six weeks after Hitler had order... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On November 29, 1933—six weeks after Hitler had ordered the German delegation to leave the Disarmament Conference—Baldwi ●●

1933 he had not accomplished any nuclear physics of note except within the well-equipped laboratory of hi rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story he had not accomplished any nuclear physics of note except within the well-equipped laboratory of his brain. ●●

1933 Einstein renounces German citizenship ai_extracted 1 cit. no story the most original physicist of the twentieth century once again renounced his German citizenship. ●●

1933 was George Gamow’s ticket of escape from a Soviet Union rapidly becoming inhospitable to theoretical rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story was George Gamow’s ticket of escape from a Soviet Union rapidly becoming inhospitable to theoretical physicists who persisted in modern views. ●●

1933 while Beveridge and Szilard were still laying plans. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story while Beveridge and Szilard were still laying plans. ●●

1933 Einstein meets Winston Churchill rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Einstein meets Winston Churchill ●●

1933 Locker-Lampson parliamentary bill candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Locker-Lampson parliamentary bill ●●

1933 Einstein visits son Eduard candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Einstein visits son Eduard ●●

1933 Information history in 1933 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story n a very interesting manner,” he wrote. “In contradistinction Wittgenstein … advances a completely trivial and uninteresting misinterpretation. ●●

1933 ke Faraday and Clerk Maxwell who never gave a thought to the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “As a matter of history, the scientific discoveries that have ultimately inured to the benefit of society either financially or socially have been mad ●●

1933 Von Neumann, Weyl, and Alexander join the IAS ai_extracted 1 cit. no story They were joined by John von Neumann, Hermann Weyl, and James Alexander in 1933, and Marston Morse in 1934 ●●

1933 “The other half of the year the staff will be technically on rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “The other half of the year the staff will be technically on vacation,” it was reported in 1933, “but Dr ●●

1933 “I would come to Fine Hall in the morning and look for von N rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “I would come to Fine Hall in the morning and look for von Neumann’s huge car,” remembers Israel Halperin, a student in 1933, “and when it was there, ●●

1933 Event of 1933 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story edia might convey, and the impressions they must absolutely avoid— especially at the first Birth Control in Asia conference, convened at the London Sc ●●

1933 Chicago World's Fair Motto rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The 1933 Chicago World's Fair featured the motto reflecting surveillance capitalism's approach to inevitabilism. ●●

1933 e Nazis had promised that upon assuming power rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story e Nazis had promised that upon assuming power they would rebuild Germany’s economy, dismantle its democracy, destroy the German Jewish community and establish Aryans as the master race. On January 30,1933, President Paul von Hindenburg, exasperated with fruitless all-night attempts to create a gover ●●

1933 ire propaganda operation was established under Joseph Goebbels rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ire propaganda operation was established under Joseph Goebbels to publicize the information.74 Simultaneously, American eugenicists kept day-to-day tabs on the Nazi eugenic program. As of January 30, 1933, however, the American- German eugenic partnership was obsolete. Germany was now completely lea ●●

1933 the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes became known as mere rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes became known as mere scientific fronts for Nazi ideology. The foundation’s own best contact within Rüdin’s institute, Dr. Walther Spielmeyer, confirmed in a November 3, 1933, letter, “Prof. Rüdin … also holds the post of Reichskomissar for Race Investigation.” Once word ●●

1933 act within Rüdin’s institute, Dr. Walther Spielmeyer, confirmed rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story act within Rüdin’s institute, Dr. Walther Spielmeyer, confirmed in a November 3, 1933, letter, “Prof. Rüdin … also holds the post of Reichskomissar for Race Investigation.” Once word surfaced in late 1933 of the foundation’s ties to Rüdin and his Munich-based Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Psychiatry, ●●

1933 IBM designs and runs Hitler's first census ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ws and all of Europe, IBM custom-designed the punch cards and other data processing solutions to streamline those campaigns into what the company described as “blitzkrieg efficiency. “111 It began in 1933, when the company designed and executed Hitler’s first census. From there, IBM’s involvement wi ●●

1933 Hitler, his articles continued to be cited in rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Hitler, his articles continued to be cited in Eugenical News.14 Even after the Nazis assumed power in 1933, the American eugenic and medical media kept Verschuer in the spotlight. In January of 1934, t h e Journal of the American Medical Association cited a paper he presented at the German Congress ●●

1933 rch.122 The mentality behind the foundation’s biological funding rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story rch.122 The mentality behind the foundation’s biological funding could best be seen in the words of Rockefeller Natural Science Director Warren Weaver. Just a few months after Hitler came to power in 1933, Weaver circulated a report to the trustees entitled “Natural Sciences-Program and Policy: Past ●●

1933 future, superior men?”123 In pursuing its breeding goals, rejected debunked ai_extracted 1 cit. no story future, superior men?”123 In pursuing its breeding goals, the Rockefeller Foundation could reassure itself and others that it was not actually furthering the pseudoscience of eugenics. In fact, that 1933 report to the trustees specifically stated, “The attack [for heredity research] planned, however ●●

1933 er reacted at once. He sent a sworn rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story er reacted at once. He sent a sworn statement to Otto Hahn, the occupation-appointed administrator of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes, insisting that he had always opposed racial concepts. “Even before 1933,” averred Verschuer, “but also after, I took personal risks and attacked, as a scientist, in sp ●●

1933 On the conference, see “Preliminary Conference on a Popula- tion Association for the United State... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On the conference, see “Preliminary Conference on a Popula- tion Association for the United States,” December 15, 1930; “Second Conference of the Population Association of America,” May 7, 1931; To... ●●

1933 Papen though he approved quotas in principle, did so only within the limits ‘permissible according t rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Papen though he approved quotas in principle, did so only within the limits ‘permissible according to current trade treaties’ and when Papen fell, there was no decisive action by Schleicher.’ This, however, drove the farm lobby into outright oppositi ●●

1933 Hitler gives first national radio address as Chancellor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ya ‘Every Worker his Work’ On 1 February 1933, two days after his appointment as Chancellor, sweating with anticipation, Hitler recorded the first national radio address of his life.’ The unifying thread of his speech was the determin- ation of his g ●●

1933 Furthermore, his appointment in March 1933 may well have been conditional on his prior agreement to rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Furthermore, his appointment in March 1933 may well have been conditional on his prior agreement to substantial spending on work creation. ●●

1933 In 1933, given that there were 6 million un- employed and most of German industry was running at les candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1933, given that there were 6 million un- employed and most of German industry was running at less than 50 per cent capacity, this was not a hard balance to strike. ●●

1933 Todt appointed inspector general for German roads ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the last days of June 1933, z 46 “EVERY WORKER HIS WORK’ Todt was appointed as general inspector for German roads, with auth- ority over both the autobahns and major provincial roads. ●●

1933 As Hitler declared to representatives of industry in late September 1933, it was vital to avoid a se rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As Hitler declared to representatives of industry in late September 1933, it was vital to avoid a second psychological setback. ●●

1933 By 1933 the German trade balance began shifting inexor- ably into deficit and the Reichsbank’s limit rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1933 the German trade balance began shifting inexor- ably into deficit and the Reichsbank’s limited foreign exchange holdings drained rapidly away.** In January 1933 the national foreign exchange reserve had stood at over 800 million Reichsmarks. ●●

1933 Cabinet grants Schacht power to declare debt moratorium ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In April 1933 the cabinet gave Schacht carte blanche to instigate a moratorium on Germany’s international debts, at a moment of his choosing.” At first, Schacht hoped to exploit the confused situation in the United States by announcing an immediate d ●●

1933 Schacht convenes German creditors conference in Berlin ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the end of May 1933 Schacht convoked a §i THE WAGES OF DESTRUCTION conference of Germany’s creditors in Berlin where he sought to persuade them of the need for at least a partial moratorium. ●●

1933 Mefo bills first issued to finance rearmament ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Small numbers of Mefo $ 54 “EVERY WORKER HIS WORK’ bills were issued in the autumn of 1933 to tide the early Luftwaffe contractors over a cash crisis.°* Large-scale disbursement began in April 1934, conveniently timed to coincide with the renewed pr ●●

1933 Rearmament budget set to triple civilian job spending ai_extracted 1 cit. no story According to the agreement of June 1933, military spending was to be almost three times larger than the combined total of all of the civilian work creation measures announced in 1932 and 1933. ●●

1933 Britain launches new disarmament proposals ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The opportunity presented itself in October 1933 when the British launched a new round of disarmament proposals. ●●

1933 The day ended with public speeches and a rally that joined together those who had been found work si rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The day ended with public speeches and a rally that joined together those who had been found work since 1933 and those still waiting for employment. ●●

1933 This is hardly surprising, when we bear in mind that the real wages of many workers fell quite sharp rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This is hardly surprising, when we bear in mind that the real wages of many workers fell quite sharply in 1933, as wages stagnated and prices for food began to rise. ●●

1933 Pressure on the balance of trade: monthly imports and exports (million Reichsmarks) discussions betw rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Pressure on the balance of trade: monthly imports and exports (million Reichsmarks) discussions between the Reichsbank and a number of Germany’s largest corporations.” In July 1933 Hitler stated to a key meeting of leading Nazis that the first wave o ●●

1933 With this in mind, big business had little good to expect from the government appointed by President rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story With this in mind, big business had little good to expect from the government appointed by President Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. ●●

1933 The reformed Reichsbank, the Reich Ministry of Economic Affairs, the Reich Labour Ministry and the R rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The reformed Reichsbank, the Reich Ministry of Economic Affairs, the Reich Labour Ministry and the Reich Ministry of Food and Agriculture were all products of World War I and its after- math.*’ Many of the regulatory systems introduced after 1933 had ●●

1933 Furthermore, though it is important to do justice to the shift in power relations between the state rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Furthermore, though it is important to do justice to the shift in power relations between the state and business that undoubtedly occurred in the early 1930s, we must be careful to avoid falling into the trap of viewing German business merely as the ●●

1933 This was clearly intended as part of a more general reorganiz- ation in the coal industry, which als candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This was clearly intended as part of a more general reorganiz- ation in the coal industry, which also included the notorious manoeuvrethrough which Paul Silverberg, Germany’s leading Jewish industrialist, was stripped of his control of the lignite pr ●●

1933 Vv Unlike in chemicals and steel, where the regime was dealing with large and well-established produ rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Vv Unlike in chemicals and steel, where the regime was dealing with large and well-established producers, the most dramatic industrial inter- vention of the Third Reich concerned an industry which in 1933 was a sector of completely insignificant prop ●●

1933 Berlin conference sets Nazi aircraft industry policy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The new dispensation was spelled out to the German aircraft industry at a conference held in Berlin on 20 October 1933, two days after the Junkers expropriation.”’ Greeting the aircraft industrialists in solemn silence with arm raised in salute, Goer ●●

1933 German advertising council restricts use of 'Volk' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In fact, by 1933 the use of the term ‘Volk’ had become so inflationary that the newly established German advertising council was forced to ban the unlicensed use of the term. ●●

1933 Propaganda Ministry commissions the People's Radio ai_extracted 1 cit. In May 1933 the Propaganda Ministry took the initiative by coming to an agreement with a group of radio manufacturers to push through the large-scale production of a new standard radio.*’ This was to be cheaper than any radio previously on the market ●●

1933 Nazi regime abolishes tax on newly bought cars ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In April 1933, the regime also announced the elimination of car tax on all newly acquired vehicles. ●●

1933 Ironically, it was not Ford, but Ford’s great rival that introduced Fordist mass- production to Germ rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Ironically, it was not Ford, but Ford’s great rival that introduced Fordist mass- production to German metalworking.” And the substantial increase in car ownership over which Hitler’s regime presided after 1933 was in large part driven by investment ●●

1933 If all the land held by farms over 500 hectares in 1933 had been compre- hensively expropriated and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story If all the land held by farms over 500 hectares in 1933 had been compre- hensively expropriated and used to create family farms of 20 hectares, the total number of new homesteads created would have been no more than 500,000. ●●

1933 In 1933, after the fall of Hugenberg, and again in 1934, after Kurt Schmitt resigned, Darré was rumo rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1933, after the fall of Hugenberg, and again in 1934, after Kurt Schmitt resigned, Darré was rumoured to be bidding to take over the Ministry of Economic Affairs. ●●

1933 This was an amount calculated to provide for the two-stage rearmament plan of 1933: four years to bu rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This was an amount calculated to provide for the two-stage rearmament plan of 1933: four years to build a basic defensive capacity, four more years to build a significant offensive strike force. ●●

1933 The civilian labour service introduced in 1933 was to be trimmed back. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The civilian labour service introduced in 1933 was to be trimmed back. ●●

1933 1926-33 - Nicaragua - May rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1926-33 - Nicaragua - May 7 to June 5, 1926; August 27, 1926 to January 3, 1933: The coup d’état of General Chamorro aroused revolutionary activities leading to the landing of American marines to protect the interests of the United States ●●

1933 US troops leave Nicaragua, empowering Somoza's Guard ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When the American military forces left Nicaragua for the last time, in 1933, they left behind a souvenir by which the Nicaraguan people could remember them: the National Guard, placed under the direction of one Anastasio Somoza (just as in 1924 the U ●●

1933 Legislative action rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Lawrence Laughlin, The Federal Reserve Act: Its Origin and Problems (New York: Macmillan, 1933), p ●●

1933 Southern Rhodesia buys back its mineral rights ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Southern Rhodesia government purchased the British South Africa Company's mineral rights using money raised from African taxpayers, a transaction Nkrumah highlights as a burden shifted onto the colonised. ●●

27 February 1933 Reichstag Fire and the emergency decree 1 cit. The Reichstag building burns and the Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe is arrested at the scene. The Nazis blame a communist plot and the next day issue the Reichstag Fire Decree suspending civil liberties, opening a wave of arrests. Historians still debate whether van der Lubbe acted alone or the fire served Nazi aims, but its use to crush opposition is clear. politics ●●●

23 March 1933 Enabling Act passed in Germany 1 cit. With communist deputies barred and SA men filling the hall, the Reichstag passes the Enabling Act, letting the cabinet make laws without parliament. The act gives Hitler dictatorial powers under a veneer of legality and marks the legal end of the Weimar Republic. politics ●●●●

1933 The 1933 identity cards fix ethnicity in law 1 cit. The Belgian administration carried out a census and issued identity cards that stamped every Rwandan as Hutu, Tutsi, or Twa, often using crude measures like cattle counts and physical features. What had been a shifting social category became a fixed, inherited, state-recorded race that a person could not escape. These cards followed families for generations and were later used at roadblocks in 1994 to sort who would live and who would die. Scholars widely name this colonial race classification as the documented engine of later ethnic violence. politics / society ●●●

c. 1933 The documented driver was colonial policy, not any secret lodge unproven 2 cit. Fringe conspiracy writing sometimes blames Masonic or secret-society plots for Rwanda's ethnic engineering. There is no credible evidence for any such claim, and serious historians do not entertain it. The documented driver is plain and well-recorded: Belgian colonial administration and Church thinking turned a fluid social order into a racial hierarchy through census, identity cards, and Hamitic race theory. Naming a hidden lodge only distracts from the real, traceable chain of colonial policy. politics / society ●

1933 The Nazis weaponize the Jewish finance lie legendary 1 cit. Nazi propaganda made the myth of Jewish financial and world control a core message, casting Jews as the hidden power behind both banking and communism to justify persecution. This lie helped pave the road to the Holocaust, in which six million Jews were murdered. The trope of international Jewish finance is not a harmless exaggeration; it was central to the deadliest genocide of the modern era and is false in every part. politics / war ●●●

20 February 1933 German industrialists back Hitler at a private meeting 1 cit. Three weeks after Hitler became chancellor, some two dozen leading German industrialists met privately with him and Hermann Goering. Hitler promised to crush the labor movement and rebuild the military, and the businessmen pledged large sums for the coming election. The meeting, arranged with Hjalmar Schacht, tied big German business to the new regime. economy / politics ●●●●