Events, Verisoph

1946 Quoted in Frances Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew (New York: Viking, 1946), pp rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quoted in Frances Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew (New York: Viking, 1946), pp. ●●

1946 Liebow used a British invention, the Standardized Casualty Rate, to compute that Little Boy produced rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Liebow used a British invention, the Standardized Casualty Rate, to compute that Little Boy produced casualties, including dead, 6,500 times more efficiently than an ordinary HE bomb. ●●

1946 Szilard Papers: “Only a man with [Szilard’s] brass would have pushed through to the President. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Szilard Papers: “Only a man with [Szilard’s] brass would have pushed through to the President. ●●

1946 1946: 8p, B 1, F 11, S 109 Mauchly: Apic/Contributor/Hulton Arch... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story S 109 Mauchly: Apic/Contributor/Hulton Archive/Getty Images Eckert: © Bettmann/Corbis ENIAC in 1946: University of Pennsylvania Archives Aiken and Hopper: By a staff photographer / © 1946 The Christia ●●

1946 1946: Howard Aiken and Grace Hopper (1906–92) with a part of Babbage’s Diffe rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Howard Aiken and Grace Hopper (1906–92) with a part of Babbage’s Difference Engine at Harvard in 1946. Jean Jennings and Frances Bilas with ENIAC. Jea ●●

1946 1946: who would have rights to the innovations on EDVAC. The wrangling was c rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story who would have rights to the innovations on EDVAC. The wrangling was complex, but the upshot was that Mauchly and Eckert left Penn at the end of March ●●

1946 1946: terfaces, and feature delightful graphic displays. STEVE RUSSELL AND S rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story terfaces, and feature delightful graphic displays. STEVE RUSSELL AND SPACEWAR The hacker subculture, as well as the seminal video game Spacewar , eman ●●

1946 1946: Aiken: Harvard University Archives, UAV 362.7295.8p, B 1, F 11, S 109 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Aiken: Harvard University Archives, UAV 362.7295.8p, B 1, F 11, S 109 Mauchly: Apic/Contributor/Hulton Archive/Getty Images Eckert: © Bettmann/Corbis ●●

1946 1946 There are two kinds of creation myths: those where lif rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story —John von Neumann, 1946 There are two kinds of creation myths: those where life arises out of the mud, and those where life falls from the sky ●●

1946 There was one notable exception: Julian Bigelow rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story There was one notable exception: Julian Bigelow, who arrived at the Institute, in 1946, as John von Neumann’s chief engineer ●●

1946 ound) was one of the principal organizers of the army’s Elec rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Army Ordnance and the Aberdeen Proving Ground) was one of the principal organizers of the army’s Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, or ENIA ●●

1946 uld remember indefinitely without rejuvenation … just memori rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “One should be able to go to any element without having to go to all the others [and] it should remember indefinitely without rejuvenation … just memo ●●

1946 Not only was von Neumann impatient to get started on the com rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Not only was von Neumann impatient to get started on the computer, but Aydelotte was about to leave for Palestine, as a member of the Joint Anglo-Amer ●●

1946 At the time the computer project was launched in 1946 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the time the computer project was launched in 1946, Veblen occupied room 124 on the ground floor, with bay windows looking out toward the end of Ol ●●

1946 This he did.” The engineers also had to install their own wi rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This he did.” The engineers also had to install their own wiring, and, reminiscent of Julian Bigelow’s installation of a single circuit to his bedroom ●●

1946 The new building would not be ready to move into until Chris rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The new building would not be ready to move into until Christmas of 1946 ●●

1946 rmined essentially by the existing amplitude of a voltage or rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Elements of which the state is determined essentially by the existing amplitude of a voltage or signal are called ‘gates.’ ”57 In 1946, on the eve of ●●

1946 Bernal sent Booth on a mission to survey the state of comput rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1946, Bernal sent Booth on a mission to survey the state of computing in the United States ●●

1946 magnetic wire was the recording medium of choice rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1946, magnetic wire was the recording medium of choice ●●

1946 re as Thompson did and carry down a large quantity of sugar rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “To come up here as Thompson did and carry down a large quantity of sugar in excess of your rations is not cricket,” Aydelotte continued, “and I shoul ●●

1946 He remembers: “1946 was a year of ferment rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story He remembers: “1946 was a year of ferment, for the formulation of the problem and the means of solving it were at last moving toward each other, albei ●●

1946 Orders will follow.’ ”17 Thompson arrived at the Institute rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Orders will follow.’ ”17 Thompson arrived at the Institute in December 1946, moving into one of the Mineville apartments at the foot of Olden Lane ●●

1946 but because they really wanted to believe that forecasting s rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As Thompson explained, they “were against it, not for any objective reasons but because they really wanted to believe that forecasting should be an ar ●●

1946 TEN Monte Carlo Between 1946 and 1955 we crossed the count rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story TEN Monte Carlo Between 1946 and 1955 we crossed the country twenty-eight times by car ●●

1946 1946 “ONCE IN MY LIFE I had a mathematical dream which prov rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story —John von Neumann to Edward Teller, 1946 “ONCE IN MY LIFE I had a mathematical dream which proved correct,” remembers Stanislaw Ulam, born in Lwów, P ●●

1946 the entire Theoretical Division had been reduced to eight pe rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story With the war over, the entire Theoretical Division had been reduced to eight people by 1946 ●●

1946 Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists is founded ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Albert Einstein, Léo Szilárd, Harold Urey, Linus Pauling, Victor Weisskopf, and Hans Bethe formed the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, holdin ●●

1946 He lectured on Einstein’s theory of relativity at the Univer rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story He lectured on Einstein’s theory of relativity at the University of Oslo, published a volume of lecture notes on the theory of probability and statist ●●

1946 ENIAC is publicly unveiled ai_extracted 2 cit. no story The ENIAC was publicly unveiled in February of 1946, while the existence of Colossus would not be officially acknowledged for thirty-two years ●●

1946 ll the other groups trying to build a practical implementati rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Well, they had a little vector started that turned out subsequently to be very important vectors.”22 How did the von Neumann vector manage to outdist ●●

1946 ” von Neumann reported to Klári in November 1946 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bureau of Standards, at first for 1 year and 50 kilobucks,” von Neumann reported to Klári in November 1946 ●●

1946 Alan Turing receives the Order of the British Empire ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Alan Turing received the Order of the British Empire in 1946, yet, under the Official Secrets Act, he could never talk openly about his wartime work ●●

1946 see Los Alamos; Manhattan Project “Proposed Electronic Calcu rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Air Force) Project Whirlwind, 8.1, 17.1 Project Y, see Los Alamos; Manhattan Project “Proposed Electronic Calculator” (Turing, 1946) Proving Ground ●●

1946 Event of 1946 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Shortly after assuming his post in Paris in 1946, and without consulting any of the member na- tions, he issued a statement titled UNESCO, Its Purpose ●●

1946 mental in Nazi genocide. These additional trials would candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story mental in Nazi genocide. These additional trials would prosecute doctors, scientists and industrialists. Many of these tribunals would be conducted exclusively by the United States.66 On December 11, 1946, as the United States was readying its own prosecutions, the United Nations approved Resolution ●●

1946 Administrative Procedure Act passed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Finally, there are mechanisms like the landmark Administrative Procedure Act, passed in 1946, that forces federal agencies to publicly post rule changes and to solicit comment on them. ●●

1946 There were a number of important legal steps leading up to this result, including the August 16, 194 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story There were a number of important legal steps leading up to this result, including the August 16, 1945, announcement by the emperor that Japan had accepted the Potsdam Declaration and unconditional surrender, and the Imperial Rescript of January 1, 19 ●●

1946 19 Congress mandated consultation in the landmark 1946 Administrative Procedure Act, which required rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 19 Congress mandated consultation in the landmark 1946 Administrative Procedure Act, which required regulatory agencies to publicly post proposed rule changes and to solicit notice and comment. ●●

1946 Two: Years of Trial and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Two: Years of Trial and Hope, 1946-1953 (Great Britain, 1956), p ●●

1946 Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, 16 October 1946, column 887 (reference is made here to Bevin’s statement of 10 August) ●●

1946 (The British Foreign Secretary, Ernest rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story (The British Foreign Secretary, Ernest Bevin, acknowledged in August 1946 that there were 228 ex-members of the Nazi Security Battalions—whose main task had been to track down Greek resistance fighters and Jews—on active service in the new Greek army ●●

1946 When 1946 arrived, about 100,000 candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When 1946 arrived, about 100,000 American military personnel were still in China, still supporting Chiang ●●

1946 For the 1948 election, scheduled candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story For the 1948 election, scheduled for 18 April, the PCI and PSI united to form the Popular Democratic Front (FDP) and in February won municipal elections in Pescara with a 10 percent increase in their vote over 1946 ●●

1946 Apparently because of this pressure, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Apparently because of this pressure, the elections held on May 30 were fair enough to allow “moderate” ele- ments to participate, and, as mentioned earlier, the Rhee government was decisively repudi-ated.27 The resentment was manifested in the form o ●●

1946 1946 election: Mark Gayn, Japan rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1946 election: Mark Gayn, Japan Diary (New York 1948) p ●●

20 February 1946 Congress passes the Employment Act of 1946 2 cit. President Harry Truman signed the Employment Act on 20 February 1946, making maximum employment, production and purchasing power a formal federal policy responsibility. The final act was less sweeping than the original full-employment bill, but it created the Council of Economic Advisers and locked macroeconomic management into the machinery of the US state. economy / politics ●●●●

1946 The Employment Act of 1946 passed only through the concerted efforts of liberal... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Employment Act of 1946 passed only through the concerted efforts of liberal and labor groups ●●

1946 Mauchly and Eckert found their own computer company ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Unable to resolve patent disputes with the university, Mauchly and Eckert leave Penn to start the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation. ●●

1946 Houphouet-Boigny tells France's Assembly Ivory Coast rejects separatism candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the French National Assembly, the future president of the Ivory Coast argued for continued union with France, a position mass pressure for independence would later force him to abandon. ●●

c. 1946 Mass Squatter Evictions Feed the Revolt 1 cit. In the late 1940s settlers and the state pushed tens of thousands of Kikuyu squatters off the Highlands farms and back to reserves that had no room for them. Uprooted, landless, and bitter, many carried their grievance into Nairobi's slums and into the movement that became Mau Mau. The squatter question, land and a living taken away, was one of the direct roads to the Emergency of 1952. economy / politics / society ●●●

1946 Forced Repatriation of Rift Valley Squatters ai_extracted 1 cit. As white farmers imposed harsh new labour contracts and cattle limits after the war, more than 100,000 Kikuyu squatters were driven off the Rift Valley farms between 1946 and 1952. Forced to sell their livestock cheaply and returning to overcrowded reserves with no land, these embittered evictees became a major source of Mau Mau support. ●●

1946 Moi teaches in the colonial education service 2 cit. From 1946 to 1955 Moi worked as a teacher in the colonial education system, including Tambach. He rose through school postings and was remembered as strict, sober and disciplined, traits that colonial officials and later Kenyan political allies read as signs of moderation and reliability. politics / society ●●●

1946 The Commissioner for Cooperatives becomes the gatekeeper 1 cit. In 1946 the colonial state appointed the first Commissioner for Cooperatives and began building a Department of Cooperative Development. That office mattered because cooperative membership, registration, bylaws, marketing, finance and official supervision now ran through a state gate. The cooperative became both a route into cash income and a route into bureaucratic control. economy / politics ●●●

c. 1946 Kenya Fuel and Bark turns wattle money into nationalist infrastructure contested 3 cit. Kenya Fuel and Bark grew out of the black-wattle bark economy in Central Kenya, where African growers and traders fought settler and state control over marketing. Kiburi House became a nationalist node, tied in Kenyan memory to Kenya Fuel and Bark, KAU activity, Mau Mau detainees and later state neglect. The Muigai point must be handled directly: a business-history source names Johnstone Muigai as leading Kenya Fuel and Bark, while Kenyan reporting foregrounds Kiburi Thumbi and names James Muigai among early company figures. That identity conflict needs company-register or memoir confirmation before the app treats "JJ Muigai" as settled. culture / economy / politics ●●●

1947 U.S. reverse course on occupation policy ai_extracted 1 cit. By 1947, with the advent of the Cold War, MacArthur's democratization policies had been seriously undermined and a major unannounced U-turn in the U.S. stance toward Japan had taken place, with GHQ now advancing the continuation of the wartime mobilization system. ●●●●

1947 Anti-Monopoly Law enacted ai_extracted 1 cit. An Anti-Monopoly Law and a Law for the Elimination of Excessive Concentration of Economic Power were enacted in 1947 as part of the occupation's deconcentration program. ●●●

January 1947 Reconstruction Finance Bank established ai_extracted 1 cit. In January 1947 the Reconstruction Finance Department was separated from the Industrial Bank of Japan and established as the public Reconstruction Finance Bank, tasked with preferential funding of strategic industries and funded by government bills the central bank had to discount. ●●●

1947 Priority lending regulations of 1947 ai_extracted 1 cit. With the 1947 Regulations on the Provision of Funds by Financial Institutions, announced by the Ministry of Finance, the government reestablished the wartime priority production system, ranking 460 types of business into lending categories. ●●●

March 1947 Emergency Measures Law of March 1947 ai_extracted 1 cit. Japan's postwar financial control measures, compared by Yoshino to Schacht's policies of the early 1920s, were fully implemented with the Emergency Measures Law of March 1947. ●●●

1947 to 1949 Temporary Law for Credit Allocation enacted and rescinded ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1947 the Temporary Law for Credit Allocation moved the Bond Committee to the central bank; in 1949 the law was rescinded and the Ministry of Finance reclaimed oversight of private-sector bond issuance. ●●●

1947 Temporary Interest Rates Adjustment Law reintroduced ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1947 the occupation reintroduced the wartime interest-fixing law as the Temporary Interest Money Rates Adjustment Law, enabling the BoJ and Ministry of Finance to set interest rate ceilings; it remained 'temporary' until the 1980s. ●●●

December 1947 The transistor 1 cit. Researchers at Bell Labs built the first working transistor, a tiny solid state switch and amplifier. Transistors replaced bulky vacuum tubes and are the basic building block of all modern electronics. technology ●●●●●

1947 Stalin forces Czechoslovakia to reject Marshall aid ai_extracted 1 cit. Czechoslovakia accepted the Marshall Plan offer on 7 July 1947 but was forced by Stalin's direct order to Gottwald to reverse the decision three days later. ●●

1947 Truman Doctrine proclaimed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 12 March 1947 Truman told a joint session of Congress the U.S. must support free peoples resisting subjugation, and won $400 million in aid for Greece and Turkey. ●●

1947 Marshall Plan announced at Harvard ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At Harvard's 1947 commencement, Secretary of State Marshall proposed American economic support for a European Recovery Program open even to the Soviet bloc, which Stalin rejected. ●●

1947 National Security Act reorganizes U.S. security ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The National Security Act of 1947 unified the armed services, created the National Security Council, and set up the CIA and NSA, a system Quigley says was built on secrecy and anonymity. ●●

1947 Truman's loyalty oath order ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 21 March 1947 Truman ordered a loyalty oath from all government workers, giving investigators a weapon to prosecute concealed Communists for perjury. ●●

1947 United Nations World magazine founded ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1947 Michael Straight founded United Nations World, reorganized from Asia magazine, to promote the new United Nations. ●●

1947 United Nations votes to partition Palestine ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Britain appealed to the United Nations, which voted in November 1947 to partition Palestine into intertwining Jewish and Arab zones with an international zone in Jerusalem. The Arab League rejected partition and swore to resist it by force. ●●

1947 Everson decision removes God from school, 1947 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto points to the Supreme Court's 1947 Everson decision as the moment religion was fully removed from American public schools. ●●

1947 Everson v. Board of Education decided ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto points to the 1947 Supreme Court decision Everson v. Board of Education as the ruling that began removing religion from American public schools. He treats it as the start of the 'separation of church and state' doctrine applied to schools. ●●

1947 CIA founded as a Network creation ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book asserts the CIA, founded in 1947, is a creation of the Network used to covertly destabilize and topple uncooperative nations. It presents US foreign policy costs as accruing to America while benefits go to the Network. ●●

1947 Malagasy revolt of 1947 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story During French colonial rule, a revolt broke out in Madagascar in 1947. French forces killed large numbers of Malagasy, by some reports around one hundred thousand. ●●

1947 India gains independence ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book notes that from the Company's conquest, India would stay in British hands for another 144 years. It finally won its freedom in August 1947. ●●

1947 Year 1947: Ayatollah Kashani, who had learned that Qavam plan rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Ayatollah Kashani, who had learned that Qavam planned to arrest him, issued a fatwa ordering soldiers to join the rebellion, which he called a “holy war against the imperialists.” ... ●●

1947 He was permitted to enter rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story He was permitted to enter the United States without State Department opposition even at the height of the 1947 controversy, much to the dismay of the British, who had been, after all, the target of Dornberger’s rockets. ●●

1947 ”8 By the end of rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ”8 By the end of 1947 Gehlen had restored, for the most part, the lines of command that Berlin had once used to control its assets inside the collaborationist organizations during the war. Two SS veterans, Franz Six and Emil Augsburg, took charge of essential aspects of émigré work for Gehlen. ●●

1947 By late 1947, however, Gehlen rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By late 1947, however, Gehlen had become “an alarm signal” (as Höhne of Der Spiegel puts it) in a series of secret conferences with General Lucius Clay, then the U. ●●

1947 ” By the end of rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ” By the end of 1947 the U. ●●

1947 CHAPTER SEVEN “I … Prefer rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story CHAPTER SEVEN “I … Prefer to Remain Ignorant” The emerging East-West conflict had entered a new and clearly more hostile phase early in 1947. ●●

1947 Britain ends support for Greek monarchists ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When the British announced in early 1947 that they were withdrawing their sponsorship of the monarchists, almost every observer concluded that a leftist victory was at hand. There was, however, another force in Greece, and it is to them that U. ●●

1947 ”24 Greece in 1947 and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ”24 Greece in 1947 and Italy in 1948 also taught the CIA that it could employ former Nazi collaborators on a large scale in clandestine operations and get away with it. ●●

1947 ” And Lithia, which began rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ” And Lithia, which began under army auspices in November 1947, authorized “liquidation in [the] United States Zone [of Germany] of the Kundermann Ring, a large scale Czechoslovakian intelligence net. ●●

1947 State Department intelligence report of candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story State Department intelligence report of May 1947, “the Vatican … is the largest single organization involved in the illegal movement of emigrants … [and] the justification … for its participation in this illegal traffic is simply the propagation of the Faith. ●●

1947 24. Rodes memo to DDI Frankfurt, May 22, 1947 (top rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 24. Rodes memo to DDI Frankfurt, May 22, 1947 (top secret), copy in author’s collection. On Poppe’s work for British and American agencies: Poppe, op. ●●

1947 John S. Guthrie memorandum for the secretary, Security Control Sect... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John S. Guthrie memorandum for the secretary, Security Control Section, JIG, “Subject: Assignment of Code Word,” December 8, 1947 (top secret), (for Hagberry) and November 21, 1947... ●●

1947 X [Kennan]: It’s America vs. Russia … Until Russia Is rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story X [Kennan]: It’s America vs. Russia … Until Russia Is Forced to Cooperate or Collapse,” Newsweek (July 21, 1947), p.16. 33. ●●

1947 CIA created to replace the wartime OSS ai_extracted 1 cit. no story It was still a new agency, created in 1947 to replace the wartime Office of Strategic Services (1947) ●●

1947 Presidents, cabinet secretaries, national security advisers, and CI... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Presidents, cabinet secretaries, national security advisers, and CIA directors approved them, authorized by the 1947 law that created the CIA and assi (1947) ●●

1947 NSC authorizes CIA covert psychological operations ai_extracted 1 cit. no story National Security Council issued first directive authorizing CIA to conduct covert psychological operations against Soviet activities. ●●

1947 Tanganyika groundnuts scheme launched ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Tanganyika groundnuts scheme was launched in 1947 as a colonial development project, representing high-modernist agricultural planning that failed to achieve its objectives. ●●

1947 Meriwether himself, born in 1947, ruefully observed: ‘If I had lived through the Depression, I rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Meriwether himself, born in 1947, ruefully observed: ‘If I had lived through the Depression, I would have been in a better position to understand events. ●●

1947 CIA Growth and Expansion rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1953, the CIA had grown to six times its size at founding in 1947, with fifteen thousand employees across fifty countries. ●●

1947 CHAPTER 40––Itinerant Preacher Jimmy Warburg didn’t have to... (1947) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After two failed marriages and an explosively uneven career, Jimmy, fifty-two, tried to start afresh. In 1947, he was scouting about for a new secreta... ●●

1947 CHAPTER 42––The Cousins Club Siegmund Warburg had the spark... (1947) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the early postwar years, he again pictured Western economies slouching toward Armageddon. After a New York visit in 1947, he told Fritz, “A real de... ●●

1947 6. MMW. Fritz M. Warburg Akten. Paket 3 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 6. MMW. Fritz M. Warburg Akten. Paket 3. “Siegmund G. Warburg Folder.” Letter from Siegmund to Fritz Warburg, June 7, 1947. ●●

1947 2. JW. Box 21, Stevenson folder 1947–52, letter rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 2. JW. Box 21, Stevenson folder 1947–52, letter to Adlai Stevenson, March 17, 1952. ●●

1947 1. MMW. Fritz M. Warburg Akten. Paket 3 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1. MMW. Fritz M. Warburg Akten. Paket 3. Siegmund G. Warburg Folder. Letter from Siegmund to Fritz Warburg, June 7, 1947. ●●

1947 Stalinist terror reimposed after the war ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The reimposition of Stalinist terror in the late 1940s involved large-scale arrests and frequent executions, extending Stalin's brutal control beyond the war years. ●●

1947 Soviet-American arms race lasts 40 years with impoverishing effects rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The forty-year-long arms race with the United States, lasting from the late 1940s to the late 1980s, had socially impoverishing effects throughout Soviet society. ●●