Events, Verisoph

1961 Britain applies to join the Common Market, 1961 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Driven by the EEC's prosperity, Macmillan applied for British membership in the European Economic Community in August 1961, opening many months of onerous negotiations. ●●

1961 Eisenhower warns of a scientific-technological elite ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In his 1961 farewell address, President Dwight Eisenhower warned that public policy could become captive to a scientific-technological elite. Wood presents this as an early caution against technocracy. ●●

1961 Gatto begins teaching in New York City ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto recounts starting his career as a schoolteacher in 1961, when what John Dewey called the new individualism dominated urban American schooling. ●●

1961 Patrice Lumumba executed in the Congo ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Lumumba was captured by CIA-backed Joseph Mobutu and handed to his enemies. A Belgian officer shot him dead just before Kennedy's inauguration. ●●

1961 Intelligence board urges reassessment of covert action ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities issued final recommendations questioning whether covert action was worth its costs. It called for a total reassessment of the CIA's programs. ●●

1961 Eisenhower leaves a 'legacy of ashes' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At his final National Security Council meetings, an angry Eisenhower said he had failed to reform American intelligence. He told Dulles he would leave a legacy of ashes to his successor. ●●

1961 CIA arms Dominican conspirators against Trujillo ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The agency was told a small-arms shipment was headed to Dominican plotters planning to kill dictator Rafael Trujillo. The Special Group had approved the decision a week earlier. ●●

1961 Rafael Trujillo assassinated ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo was gunned down two weeks after the arms warning. It was the closest the CIA had come to a White House-directed murder. ●●

1961 Bay of Pigs invasion begins with air strikes ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Eight American B-26 bombers hit Cuban airfields as the CIA's exile brigade sailed for the Bay of Pigs. The strikes destroyed only part of Castro's air force. ●●

1961 Bay of Pigs ends in disaster ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Castro's forces crushed the CIA-backed brigade on the beaches in sixty hours. Most of the invaders were captured and over a hundred died. ●●

1961 Allen Dulles retires as director of central intelligence ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the Bay of Pigs failure, Allen Dulles left the CIA. His long tenure of unchecked covert action came to an end. ●●

1961 Berlin Wall erected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story East Germany sealed off West Berlin, first with barbed wire and then concrete. The CIA found it could do little in East Germany. ●●

1961 Kennedys create Special Group (Augmented) to eliminate Castro ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John and Robert Kennedy set up a secret planning cell devoted to overthrowing Fidel Castro. It reported directly to the attorney general. ●●

1961 West German spy chief Heinz Felfe arrested as Soviet mole ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Heinz Felfe, head of West German counterintelligence, was exposed as a Soviet agent. He had betrayed roughly seventy CIA operations and the identities of over a hundred officers. ●●

1961 ” *In 1961 Six gave rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ” *In 1961 Six gave testimony as a defense witness during Adolf Eichmann’s trial for crimes against humanity. Six had retired from the Gehlen Organization by that time and was employed as an agent for Porsche automobiles. Eichmann was a department head for Porsche’s rival, Daimler-Benz. ●●

1961 Jane Jacobs publishes The Death and Life of Great American Cities ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Jane Jacobs publishes The Death and Life of Great American Cities in 1961, offering a comprehensive critique of high-modernist urban planning doctrine. Her work emphasizes street-level observation and the functional superiority of urban diversity over planned segregation. ●●

1961 Sam Zemurray, the visionary who dominated United Fruit for so rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Sam Zemurray, the visionary who dominated United Fruit for so long, was ailing—he died in 1961—and without him, the company seemed to lose its edge (1961) ●●

1961 Kennedy Years Begin for Wall Street rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story President John F. Kennedy sought to court Wall Street and the Morgan banking houses at the start of his administration in 1961. ●●

1961 CIA Langley headquarters dedicated; Dulles honored ai_extracted 1 cit. no story President Kennedy allows Allen Dulles to remain in office long enough to attend a dedication ceremony for the new CIA headquarters at Langley, Virginia. Kennedy awards Dulles the National Security Medal. ●●

1961 At a dramatic board meeting rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At a dramatic board meeting in March 1961, Siegmund and Eric watched as key members, heavily lobbied by Brinckmann, voted a partnership for... ●●

1961 In 1961 Siegmund also proposed rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1961 Siegmund also proposed that they exchange small holdings in each other—before he was the sole link—to bridge the differences between them.2... ●●

1961 Ltd., 1961. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Ltd., 1961. Saxl, Fritz. ●●

1961 After the New Haven speech (1961) candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the end, Jimmy won the fight. Afraid of losing its tax-exempt status, the UJA began to segregate political from charitable contributions in 1961. T... ●●

1961 Soviet party program vows to surpass US output ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Soviet leaders formally adopt a party program promising that by 1970 the Soviet Union will surpass the United States in industrial output. Brzezinski notes this goal was not achieved. ●●

1961 Poverty reduction in America rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1961, 22 percent of the American population is classified as below the poverty line as defined by the Social Security Administration, setting a baseline that would decline significantly over the following decade. ●●

1961 Gomulka denounces Soviet collectivization ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Polish communist leader Wladyslaw Gomulka publicly labels Soviet collectivization as the beginning of lawlessness, violation of socialist legality, and establishment of fear, marking significant dissent within communist bloc. ●●

1961 C.P. Snow reviews A.L. Rowse on Appeasement rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story C.P. Snow reviews A.L. Rowse's book on road to Munich in The New York Times Book Review, examining failure of British leadership in 1930s ●●

1961 He had been paroled in 1961. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story He had been paroled in 1961. ●●

1961 Kennedy declared confidently in 1961 that America ... candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Kennedy declared confidently in 1961 that America was strong enough to “pay any price, bear any burden” to ensure the success of liberty. ●●

1961 it will be seen that it was the elimination of German heavy-water production in candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story it will be seen that it was the elimination of German heavy-water production in Norway that was the main factor in our failure to achieve a self-sustaining atomic reactor before the war ended.1961 The race to the bomb, such as it was, ended for Germany on a mountain lake in Norway on a cold Sunday morning in February 1944. ●●

1961 Khrushchev pledges support for wars of national liberation ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 6, 1961, two weeks before Kennedy’s inauguration, Khrushchev described “wars of national liberation” as “sacred” and pledged Soviet support for them. ●●

1961 Kennedy delivers his first State of the Union Address ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the time, however, Kennedy, in his first State of the Union Address on January 31, 1961, treated Khrushchev’s speech as proof of the Soviet Union’s and China’s “ambitions for world domination—ambitions which they forcefully restated only a short t ●●

1961 By the end of 1961, it had risen to 3,164; by the time Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, the figure rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By the end of 1961, it had risen to 3,164; by the time Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, the figure was at 16,263, with more in the pipeline. ●●

1961 In his first defense review, on March 28, 1961, Kennedy restated his central theme: that, no matter candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In his first defense review, on March 28, 1961, Kennedy restated his central theme: that, no matter how powerful America’s strategic weapons were, it could nevertheless be nibbled away slowly at the peripheries “by forces of subversion, infiltration, ●●

1961 Detente introduced a new fluidity to European diplomacy, a theatre that had been virtually petrified rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Detente introduced a new fluidity to European diplomacy, a theatre that had been virtually petrified since the final consolidation of the East-West spheres of influence in 1961. ●●

1961 After the Berlin Wall was built in 1961, the issue of German unification gradually disappeared from rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the Berlin Wall was built in 1961, the issue of German unification gradually disappeared from the agenda of East-West negotiations and the German quest for unity was temporarily put on ice. ●●

1961 Kennedy launches the Alliance for Progress ai_extracted 1 cit. no story President Kennedy’s 1961 Alliance for Progress introduced foreign aid and economic cooperation, though the farsighted policy was doomed by the statist orientation of the recipients. ●●

1961 1961: HAL regresses until, at the end, it intones “Daisy Bell”—an ... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story nes “Daisy Bell”—an homage to the first computer-generated song, sung by an IBM 704 at Bell Labs in 1961. Artificial intelligence enthusiasts have long been promising, or threatening, that machines li ●●

1961 1961: was the next big booster for microchip production. In May 1961 Preside rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story was the next big booster for microchip production. In May 1961 President John F. Kennedy declared, “I believe that this nation sho ●●

1961 1961: ch as small computers connected by giant networks. A seminal moment fo rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ch as small computers connected by giant networks. A seminal moment for the hackers of the Tech Model Railroad Club came in September 1961, when the D ●●

1961 1961: ognitive circuits and disconnects them one by one. HAL regresses until rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ognitive circuits and disconnects them one by one. HAL regresses until, at the end, it intones “Daisy Bell”—an homage to the first computer-generated ●●

1961 The short-lived confederation between Egypt and Syria from 1958 to 1961 reflected such an attempt rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story contemporary international order was taking shape. Some of the more ambitious rulers such as Nasser and Saddam Hussein attempted to enlarge their territorial reach—either through force or by means of demagogic appeals to Arab unity. The short-lived c ●●

1961 Information history in 1961 candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story tablet or a hole in a punched card or a particle with spin up or down, he insisted that it could not exist without some embodiment. Landauer tried in 1961 to prove von Neumann’s formula for the cost o ●●

1961 since it in itself has a very doubtful meaning rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “Our earthly existence, since it in itself has a very doubtful meaning, can only be a means toward the goal of another existence,” Gödel wrote to his ●●

1961 Event of 1961 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ” By the end of 1961 the WPEC made $170,000 in grants for population control and held another $100,000 in reserve ●●

1961 When the country received its independence in 1961, there was no modern state to speak of. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When the country received its independence in 1961, there was no modern state to speak of. ●●

1961 The Problem of Our Time,” November 1961, “Grants Made by the World Population Emergency Campaign,... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Problem of Our Time,” November 1961, “Grants Made by the World Population Emergency Campaign,” 1962, and “Family Planning International Campaign: 12th Meeting of Steering Committee,” January 26... ●●

1961 “The Population Council”; Carroll to Overseas Representatives, April 1, 1959, and Hill to Ensming... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “The Population Council”; Carroll to Overseas Representatives, April 1, 1959, and Hill to Ensminger, April 15, 1959, both in FFA, 1953 Grant Files, PA59-482, “Government of India”; “Policy Paper: P... ●●

1961 Minutes of the Meeting of the Management and Planning Committee, May 12–13, 1960; Linder, Crusade... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Minutes of the Meeting of the Management and Planning Committee, May 12–13, 1960; Linder, Crusader for Sex Education, 234; Day to Burdick, Janu- ary 16, 1961, IPPFA, series B, reel 719, frame 1027. ●●

1961 Growth Rates and GDP Per Capita Growth Rate, 1961–2011 (%) Per Capita GDP, 2011* East Asia 7 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Growth Rates and GDP Per Capita Growth Rate, 1961–2011 (%) Per Capita GDP, 2011* East Asia 7. ●●

1961 Stein Ringen points out that the military governments ruling South Korea after 1961 nonetheless reli rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Stein Ringen points out that the military governments ruling South Korea after 1961 nonetheless relied heavily on a variety of private organizations to carry out their policies, not just giant corporations like Samsung and Hyundai, but a welter of pr ●●

1961 Kuwait becomes independent from Britain ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1961, Kuwait became “independent,” again because Britain declared it to be so, and Iraq massed troops at the border, ●●

1961 Referred to in a memorandum from Allen Dulles rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Referred to in a memorandum from Allen Dulles to the White House, 7 April 1961; the memo briefly summarizes the main poi ●●

1961 Jerome Slater, “The Dominican Republic, 1961-66” in Barry rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Jerome Slater, “The Dominican Republic, 1961-66” in Barry Blechman and Stephen Kaplan, Force Without War: U ●●

1961 War or conflict rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Also Otto Eisenschiml, The Hidden Face of the Civil War (New York: Bobbs-Merril, 1961), p ●●

1961 Cooper's High School Graduation and Air Force Enlistment rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Cooper graduated from Yamato High School in Japan and enlisted in the U.S. Air Force that same year, beginning his military career. ●●

1961 Kennedy commits the nation to a moon landing ai_extracted 1 cit. no story President Kennedy's speech commits America to a moon landing, spurring demand for microchips small enough for a rocket's guidance computer. ●●

1961 DEC donates a PDP-1 computer to MIT ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Digital Equipment Corporation donates a PDP-1 to MIT, giving hackers at the Tech Model Railroad Club a machine to experiment on. ●●

1961 Belgium absorbs a wave of new foreign-owned companies rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The number of new foreign-controlled companies set up in Belgium grew from 39 in 1959 to 237 by 1961, with American capital furnishing almost 60 percent of the money invested, evidence Nkrumah cites of Belgium's dependence on US finance. ●●

1961 Guinea threatens to expropriate Bauxites du Midi ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Guinean government warned Bauxites du Midi that if it had not begun building an aluminium factory at Boke within three months, its installations would be expropriated. ●●

1961 Gold Fields American Corporation formed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A new company, Gold Fields American Corporation, was formed as a wholly-owned subsidiary of Gold Fields Mining & Industrial to manage the group's push into American markets. ●●

1961 Algiers putsch by anti-de Gaulle generals fails ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Nkrumah cites the failed April 1961 revolt of anti-de Gaulle generals in Algeria as one of several examples where Western intelligence services shaped the outcome of political crises. ●●

1961 Kennedy establishes the Peace Corps ai_extracted 1 cit. no story President John Kennedy established the American Peace Corps, placing his brother-in-law Sargent Shriver in charge, an organisation Nkrumah alleges was screened and shaped by the FBI and used for intelligence purposes. ●●

1962 Cuban Missile Crisis marks Cold War peak ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley dates the culmination of the Cold War to the Cuban crisis of October 1962, after which he argues the rivalry began to fade into 'competitive coexistence.' ●●

1962 Chinese attack on India and Sino-Soviet break ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The third phase of postwar Far Eastern history ended with China's attack on India in October 1962 and the open break between Communist China and the Soviet Union at the end of that year. ●●

1962 Missile race runs from Cuban crisis to Kennedy's death ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley frames the seven-year missile race as reaching its culmination and denouement in the year from the Cuban missile crisis of October-November 1962 to Kennedy's death in November 1963. The 'balance of terror' achieved by 1960 led directly to this outcome. ●●

1962 Soviet missile buildup in Cuba begins ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Soviet missile buildup in Cuba began in August 1962 and proceeded with amazing speed. The White House grew suspicious by early September, but aerial photography did not confirm missile placements until October 15th. ●●

1962 Kennedy announces quarantine of Cuba ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In his speech of October 22, 1962, President Kennedy established a quarantine on offensive equipment bound for Cuba and demanded dismantling of the missile sites. He warned that any missile launched from Cuba would be treated as a Soviet attack requiring full retaliation. ●●

1962 Soviet ships turn back at the Cuban quarantine ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On Thursday, October 25, 1962, twelve of twenty-five Soviet ships en route to Cuba turned back. Quigley marks this as the moment the Kremlin backed down in the confrontation. ●●

1962 Khrushchev accepts settlement of the missile crisis ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On Sunday, October 28, 1962, Moscow radio announced Khrushchev's acceptance: work on the missile sites would stop and they would be dismantled under UN observation. In return the President would promise not to attack Cuba. ●●

1962 70,000 flee China into Hong Kong, 1962 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story During May 1962, 70,000 hungry Chinese crossed the barricaded border into British Hong Kong, exposing China's chronic food crisis to the world. ●●

1962 Ne Win's military coup in Burma, 1962 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In March 1962 General Ne Win ousted the democratic leader U Nu, suspended the constitution, and ruled through a junta of seventeen officers, moving Burma toward Communism. ●●

1962 Sino-Indian War, 1962 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In October 1962 Chinese-Indian border incidents erupted into open war. Indian forces collapsed almost at once, revealing them to be short of supplies, training, and fighting spirit. ●●

1962 Algerian settlement reached, 1962 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After nearly four more years of negotiation, the Algerian rebels and the De Gaulle regime settled the dispute on March 18, 1962. Quigley estimates the seven-year conflict cost 250,000 lives. ●●

1962 Ben Bella's visit to the Western Hemisphere, 1962 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Algeria's new leader Ben Bella toured the Western Hemisphere in October 1962 seeking economic concessions, then attacked U.S. policy from Havana, displaying the erratic style of many new states. ●●

1962 De Gaulle wins referendum on presidential election, 1962 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By referendum on October 28, 1962, over the opposition of all parties but his own, De Gaulle won almost 62 percent approval to elect the president by popular vote. ●●

1962 Nassau Conference on Anglo-American nuclear cooperation, 1962 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the Nassau Conference of December 1962, Macmillan and Kennedy sought to settle Anglo-American differences and to counter De Gaulle's weakening of NATO, agreeing to abandon Skybolt and pursue a multinational force. ●●

1962 Engel v. Vitale and Abington v. Schempp ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto lists court rulings that removed prayer from public schools, including Engel v. Vitale (1962) and Abington v. Schempp (1963). He cites them to argue verbal school prayer was ruled unconstitutional even when neutral and voluntary. ●●

1962 Nelson Mandela arrested and imprisoned ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The ANC leader Nelson Mandela was arrested and jailed in South Africa, with the CIA reportedly helping to finger him. The agency had worked closely with South Africa's Bureau of State Security. ●●

1962 CIA creates the 'Rifle' assassination program ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bill Harvey set up an executive-action program aimed at killing foreign leaders, including Castro. He retained a stateless foreign agent for the work. ●●

1962 Robert Kennedy briefed on the Rifle project ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The attorney general was told in full about the CIA's assassination program. He objected to the Mafia's role but did nothing to stop the plots. ●●

1962 Kennedy installs Oval Office taping system ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Kennedy switched on a new secret taping system he had ordered installed over the weekend. The first conversation he recorded was a plot against Brazil's president. ●●

1962 McCone predicts Soviet missiles will go to Cuba ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Director John McCone warned, against unanimous expert opinion, that Moscow would place nuclear missiles in Cuba. He had only instinct to go on. ●●

1962 CIA campaign drives out British Guiana's Cheddi Jagan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Kennedy, McCone and Bundy decided to depose the elected leftist premier Cheddi Jagan. The president launched a covert campaign that eventually forced him from power. ●●

1962 U-2 discovers a surface-to-air missile site in Cuba ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A CIA analyst spotted an SA-2 missile site in U-2 imagery of Cuba. The find made the White House wary of further overflights. ●●

1962 CIA estimate rejects Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A Special National Intelligence Estimate concluded the Soviets would not place nuclear striking forces in Cuba. It became a landmark of misjudgment. ●●

1962 U-2 flight confirms Soviet missiles in Cuba ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Major Richard Heyser flew a U-2 over western Cuba and photographed the missile sites. Analysts confirmed they were Soviet medium-range ballistic missiles. ●●

1962 Kennedy decides to take out the Cuban missiles ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After seeing the U-2 photos, Kennedy ordered strike plans prepared and said the missiles would be destroyed. The Cuban missile crisis had begun. ●●

1962 Kennedy announces the Cuban blockade to the world ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Kennedy chose McCone's strategy of a naval blockade backed by the threat of attack. He revealed the decision in a televised address. ●●

1962 U-2 shot down over Cuba during missile crisis ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A U-2 was downed over Cuba, killing Air Force Major Rudolf Anderson. The Joint Chiefs pushed for a full-scale attack. ●●

1962 Secret Cuba-Turkey missile trade ends the crisis ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Robert Kennedy secretly told Soviet ambassador Dobrynin the US would remove missiles from Turkey in exchange for withdrawal from Cuba. The deal was kept hidden for decades. ●●

1962 National Reconnaissance Office founded to build spy satellites ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The NRO was created to develop and run America's spy satellites. Air force generals soon fought the CIA for control of the program. ●●

1962 Year 1962: In 1962, having consolidated his increasingly repr rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1962, having consolidated his increasingly repressive regime, the Shah allowed the National Front to emerge from its illegality and hold a rally, on the condition that each spea... ●●

1962 Rachel Carson publishes Silent Spring ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Rachel Carson published Silent Spring in 1962, a foundational work criticizing pesticide use and promoting ecological awareness. The book challenged the dominance of chemical agriculture and monoculture practices. ●●

1962 Dulles International Airport dedicated ai_extracted 1 cit. no story President Kennedy officially opened Dulles International Airport, named after John Foster Dulles. Both President Eisenhower and Allen Dulles attended the dedication. ●●

1962 Treasury Bill Auction and Leach's Large Bid candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In August 1962, banker Leach placed an unexpectedly large bid of $650 million on a Treasury auction of $1.3 billion in three-month bills, prompting SEC intervention. ●●

1962 In 1962, age thirty-one, Anna rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1962, age thirty-one, Anna married a real estate developer, Dov Biegun, who was nearly twenty years her senior. They had met while Dov was... ●●

1962 The rickety structure took a rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The rickety structure took a mortal drubbing during the summer of 1962 when the U.S. Treasury secretary, Douglas Dillon, told an international... ●●

1962 In 1962, he and other rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1962, he and other bankers visited Japan under the aegis of the Bank of England, and their hosts included the chairman of Nomura Securities. The... ●●

1962 When Ernest Thalmann died in rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When Ernest Thalmann died in 1962, Siegmund spoke eloquently in a funeral oration of “the fog and mist of our daily doings and the long trails of... ●●