Blowback: America's Recruitment of Nazis and Its Effects on the Cold War

Christopher Simpson

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Mark Crispin Miller Introduction From pp. 2-9
Mark Crispin Miller Introduction From 1999 through 2007 I served on a historians’ advisory panel for the US National Archives and Records A…
A few notes on context pp. 2-9
A few notes on context: The “IWG” mentioned in the critique stands for the Interagency Working Group, which was created in 1999 and made up…
John Yoo appointed a public member of the IWG pp. 10-14
Insider resistance to the IWG reached its logical consummation when the White House appointed John Yoo as a public member of the IWG in May…
From 2002 through at least pp. 10-14
From 2002 through at least 2004, the IWG’s public members and the Historical Advisory Panel (on which I served) repeatedly requested federal…
22, 2000,” copy in author’s pp. 15-20
22, 2000,” copy in author’s collection.
Percentage has been calculated from pp. 15-20
Percentage has been calculated from numbers reported in David Holmes (CIA) to Steven Garfinkel (IWG Director) September 20, 2002, “CIA Respo…
policymakers used after 1945 to pp. 21-25
policymakers used after 1945 to justify employment of former Nazis and collaborators was the possibility—no, the imminence—of the outbreak o…
The actual balance of forces pp. 21-25
The actual balance of forces in Europe during the decade following 1945, however, meant that neither the United States nor the USSR was capa…
Given that situation, President Harry pp. 21-25
Given that situation, President Harry Truman ordered a program of psychological warfare, covert operations, and intelligence gathering aimed…
It is at that point pp. 26-30
It is at that point, over the winter of 1951–1952, that the blowback from the CIA’s overseas operations reached a new and more dangerous sta…
Shortly before the presidential election pp. 26-30
Shortly before the presidential election of 1952 the agency sharply expanded its media operations with a multimillion-dollar publicity campa…
The slaughter that followed the pp. 31-34
The slaughter that followed the German attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941 is without equal in world history.
Millions of Soviet POWs starved in German camps pp. 31-34
The evidence indicates that between 3 and 4 million captured Soviet soldiers were intentionally starved to death in German POW camps between…
Hitler was, however, willing to pp. 35-38
Hitler was, however, willing to go along with the pretense of a supposedly independent “Russian Liberation Movement” as a propaganda ploy, s…
Vlasov Army formed under Andrei Vlasov pp. 35-38
In 1942 this effort became known as the Vlasov Army after Andrei Vlasov, a former general in the Red Army whom the Germans had chosen to be…
Vlasov, who had been personally pp. 35-38
Vlasov, who had been personally honored by Stalin in 1941 for his courage in the defense of Moscow against German attack, had defected to th…
The German intelligence services had pp. 39-42
The German intelligence services had also systematically recruited sympathizers among the various émigré groups and by the eve of World War…
“The bulk of the volunteers pp. 39-42
“The bulk of the volunteers … I am convinced, did not enlist to fight for the [anti- Bolshevik] cause,” writes Lieutenant General Ralph von…
” He was convicted by pp. 43-47
” He was convicted by a British tribunal and sentenced to eighteen years in prison, but he obtained release in 1952 after serving fewer than…
US Third Army captures Vlasov, hands him to Soviets pp. 43-47
Third Army in early May 1945. The Americans, operating under wartime orders to cooperate with the Red Army in POW matters, turned Vlasov ove…
Whatever the truth on that pp. 43-47
Whatever the truth on that point is, it is clear that Vlasov and ten of his senior officers were tried for treason in Moscow during the summ…
SS takes over the Nordhausen rocket works pp. 48-51
In late 1944 the general reached an agreement with Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, under which the SS’s representative, Hans Kammler, took…
Food for the slaves at pp. 48-51
Food for the slaves at Nordhausen—never much in the first place —ran out altogether sometime in February 1945. But Dornberger’s orders for m…
Before the summer of 1945 pp. 48-51
Before the summer of 1945 was out, the United States and the USSR were publicly accusing each other of looting German scientific and industr…
Army and Navy brought some pp. 52-55
Army and Navy brought some German scientists to this country as early as the summer of 1945.
As early as June 1945 pp. 52-55
As early as June 1945 RCA chief David Sarnoff argues in a confidential letter to President Truman’s chief science adviser that “the securit…
National Academy of Sciences, for pp. 52-55
National Academy of Sciences, for example, put forward in 1945 the rather surprising theory that its brethren’s wartime research for the Naz…
Von Braun insisted throughout this pp. 56-60
Von Braun insisted throughout this minor ordeal that his appointment as an SS Sturmbannführer in 1937 had been purely honorary and without p…
He was permitted to enter pp. 56-60
He was permitted to enter the United States without State Department opposition even at the height of the 1947 controversy, much to the dism…
Between 1945 and 1955, 765 pp. 56-60
Between 1945 and 1955, 765 scientists, engineers, and technicians were brought to the United States under Overcast, Paperclip, and two other…
, for debriefing in August pp. 61-64
, for debriefing in August 1945. By December Sibert had won permission to proceed “under his own authority” with financing and exploitation…
” By August 1945 new pp. 61-64
” By August 1945 new reports on Soviet land war tactics and the political commissar system within the Red Army had been completed.
By 1946 these groups had pp. 61-64
By 1946 these groups had been convicted as organizational perpetrators of war crimes and crimes against humanity by the Nuremberg tribunal,…
”8 By the end of pp. 65-68
”8 By the end of 1947 Gehlen had restored, for the most part, the lines of command that Berlin had once used to control its assets inside th…
Franz Six leads the Vorkommando Moskau into the USSR pp. 65-68
In 1941 Six led the Vorkommando Moskau, an advance squad of the Nazi invasion, whose job it was to seize Communist party and NKVD archives i…
” As late as 1944 pp. 65-68
” As late as 1944 Six spoke at a conference of “consultants” on the “Jewish Question” at Krummhübel. The stenographic notes of the meeting i…
*The Wannsee Institute also provided pp. 69-73
*The Wannsee Institute also provided the setting for the January 1942 meeting in which SS leader Reinhard Heydrich announced the “Final Solu…
” *In 1961 Six gave pp. 69-73
” *In 1961 Six gave testimony as a defense witness during Adolf Eichmann’s trial for crimes against humanity. Six had retired from the Gehle…
Akhmeteli was the son of pp. 69-73
Akhmeteli was the son of an oil-rich Georgian family that had been dispossessed during the 1917 Russian Revolution. He helped finance the Wh…
For one thing, enlisting Gehlen pp. 74-77
For one thing, enlisting Gehlen was in itself a substantial escalation of the cold war that undermined what little hope was possible for Eas…
”6 The crucial period of pp. 74-77
”6 The crucial period of 1945 to 1948, when East-West relations moved from a wary peace to an intense political war, provides one case study…
By late 1947, however, Gehlen pp. 78-81
By late 1947, however, Gehlen had become “an alarm signal” (as Höhne of Der Spiegel puts it) in a series of secret conferences with General…
14 Then, in February 1948 pp. 78-81
14 Then, in February 1948, two important events took place.
“For many months, based on pp. 78-81
“For many months, based on logical analysis, I have felt and held that war [with the Soviets] was unlikely for at least ten years,” Clay cab…
”*20 Gehlen’s role in the pp. 82-86
”*20 Gehlen’s role in the 1948 crisis was one of the first—and still one of the most important—examples of blowback created by the Nazi util…
”21 *As late as 1950 pp. 82-86
”21 *As late as 1950 fully half of the Soviets’ transport for their standing army was horse-drawn. This actually had some advantages in the…
In 1980 Grombach cited wartime pp. 82-86
In 1980 Grombach cited wartime Abwehr records as proof that “the Panama Canal giveaway … is the direct result of its definite selection by t…
CROWCASS war-crimes registry launched pp. 87-91
The CROWCASS operation began in May 1945, following a call by General Dwight Eisenhower, then supreme Allied commander in Europe, for intern…
CROWCASS suspends operations after 85,000 reports pp. 87-91
By the time it suspended operations in 1948, CROWCASS had processed 85,000 wanted reports, transmitted 130,000 detention reports to investig…
Turrou breaks up German Abwehr spy ring in New York pp. 87-91
By all accounts Turrou did well at his job, and by 1938 he had gained fame by breaking up a large spy ring run by undercover German Abwehr (…
”*7 In mid-1945 the United pp. 92-95
”*7 In mid-1945 the United States seized the Luftwaffe center and transformed it into a holding tank for a number of the highest-ranking Naz…
But the majority of the pp. 92-95
But the majority of the studies, even in 1945, were designed to produce information about the USSR, not Nazi Germany, and the authors of suc…
” By the end of pp. 92-95
” By the end of 1947 the U.
Modern historians in Yugoslavia concede pp. 96-100
Modern historians in Yugoslavia concede that “tens of thousands” of Nazi collaborators were killed, often without trial, in that small count…
Soviets execute thousands of Polish officers at Katyn pp. 96-100
The preponderance of available evidence in this still-controversial episode points to the conclusion that Soviet security troops executed ap…
NKVD deports tens of thousands of Balts to Siberia pp. 96-100
Other examples include the NKVD’s forced deportation of some 35,000 to 50,000 “suspect” Latvians, Lithuanians, and Estonians to Siberian exi…
CHAPTER SEVEN “I … Prefer pp. 101-105
CHAPTER SEVEN “I … Prefer to Remain Ignorant” The emerging East-West conflict had entered a new and clearly more hostile phase early in 1947…
After liberation in 1944, political pp. 101-105
After liberation in 1944, political power in that country had teetered uneasily between a nationalist-Communist alliance dominated by the Gr…
Britain ends support for Greek monarchists pp. 101-105
When the British announced in early 1947 that they were withdrawing their sponsorship of the monarchists, almost every observer concluded th…
By late 1936, according to pp. 106-109
By late 1936, according to Kennan, use of these techniques had made the U.
Thayer, as it turned out pp. 106-109
Thayer, as it turned out, in 1945 became chief of the OSS in Austria.
Their 1945 reunion was warm pp. 106-109
Their 1945 reunion was warm and mutually profitable. Thayer regarded Herwarth as “an old friend who happened to be a captain in the German A…
The Italian elections of early pp. 110-113
The Italian elections of early 1948 marked another important milestone in the development of U.
Washington alarm over 1948 Italian Communist gains pp. 110-113
The Italian Communist party was favored to score heavily in the 1948 elections, and many analysts said that the party might democratically w…
The CIA was a young pp. 110-113
The CIA was a young organization in those days and was primarily limited (until June 1948) to simple information gathering and analysis. The…
Walter Rauff escapes the Rimini POW camp pp. 114-118
According to the Wiesenthal report, Rauff was interned at the Rimini POW camp for about eighteen months after the war but succeeded in slipp…
*22 Walter Rauff was still pp. 114-118
*22 Walter Rauff was still hiding in the “convents of the Holy See,” as he put it, when the CIA provided his sponsor Monsignor Bicchierai wi…
”24 Greece in 1947 and pp. 114-118
”24 Greece in 1947 and Italy in 1948 also taught the CIA that it could employ former Nazi collaborators on a large scale in clandestine oper…
Kennan gains oversight of US clandestine operations pp. 119-122
By the summer of 1948 Truman and Marshall had delegated personal responsibility for political oversight of all peacetime clandestine operati…
government increasingly accepted the exiles’ pp. 119-122
government increasingly accepted the exiles’ organizations as legitimate and began to pour substantial amounts of money into them—at least $…
Kennan gains oversight of US clandestine operations pp. 119-122
The spring and summer of 1948 were a period of extraordinary activity in U.
” The paper continues: Unvouchered pp. 123-126
” The paper continues: Unvouchered funds in the amount of $5,000,000 should be made available by Congress for the fiscal year 1949 to a comp…
”8 In September 1948 a pp. 123-126
”8 In September 1948 a new Joint Chiefs order amplified the plan. “A psychological offensive to subvert the Red Army is considered a primary…
NSC 10/2 authorizes CIA covert warfare pp. 123-126
covert warfare plans in a June 1948 decision known in national security parlance as NSC 10/2 (“NSC ten-slash-two”). The decision marked a cr…
“We had thought that this pp. 127-131
“We had thought that this would be a facility which could be used when and if the occasion arose, when it might be needed,” he said in 1975…
By 1950 his erstwhile allies pp. 127-131
By 1950 his erstwhile allies in secret work—men like Allen and John Foster Dulles, Paul Nitze, and Arthur Bliss Lane—were grasping for more…
SANACC was originally founded in pp. 127-131
SANACC was originally founded in 1944 as SWNCC (“State, War, Navy Coordinating Committee”), then changed its name with the reorganization of…
Third, they had to have pp. 132-136
Third, they had to have entered the United States between June 1948, when the program was approved, and mid-1950, when changes in U.
Hilger, it is true, had pp. 132-136
Hilger, it is true, had initially opposed the German invasion of the USSR in 1941 and had mentioned this to Hitler during a private conferen…
… But Adenauer was eventually pp. 137-141
… But Adenauer was eventually permitted to form a government in 1949. This was due in part to Hilger’s contacts with the U.
In 1950, for example, Bohlen pp. 137-141
In 1950, for example, Bohlen remembers that he, Hilger, and Kennan formed an analysis team specializing in interpretation of Soviet geopolit…
He did, however, write in pp. 137-141
He did, however, write in 1982: “I do not recall seeing him [Gustav Hilger], or having any contact with him, in the period between the end o…
knowledge of Poppe’s work for pp. 142-145
knowledge of Poppe’s work for Nazi intelligence and Soviet efforts to capture him —indeed, probably precisely because of that knowledge—he w…
Military Air Transport plane in pp. 142-145
Military Air Transport plane in May 1949. The following day he was flown to Washington, D.
Poppe had (and has) a pp. 142-145
Poppe had (and has) a personal grievance against Lattimore, who he claims used his influence to block Poppe’s immigration to the United Stat…
” *Alexander’s highly publicized activities pp. 146-150
” *Alexander’s highly publicized activities during 1948 are another indication that Bloodstone was geared to bring in Nazi collaborators, no…
cables as an “important member pp. 146-150
cables as an “important member of [the] German espionage network in Central Asia from 1931 to 1945,” and Mehmet Sunsh, who was said to have…
Free Europe committee becomes CIA emigre funding pipeline pp. 151-154
Beginning as early as 1948 and picking up speed in the decade that followed, the National Committee for a Free Europe and its sister project…
Radio transmissions into Central and pp. 151-154
Radio transmissions into Central and Eastern Europe began in 1950 under Radio Free Europe’s auspices, then expanded to include programs beam…
cover organization for the Radio pp. 155-158
cover organization for the Radio Liberation operation, the American Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia, took its name dir…
Their work was, as National pp. 155-158
Their work was, as National Committee for a Free Europe President Dewitt Poole noted in one 1950 directive, “to take up the individual Bolsh…
The NCFE announced that it pp. 155-158
The NCFE announced that it had obtained the “Document” from “a former Baltic cabinet minister, favorably known to us,” who in turn had gotte…
General Lucius Clay's 1948 war scare pp. 159-163
General Lucius Clay’s war scare of early 1948, together with the deepening cold war, convinced many Americans in and out of government that…
Kennan gains oversight of US clandestine operations pp. 159-163
By 1948 that the United States would increasingly rely on atomic weapons to deter any Soviet military moves against the West had already bec…
A Czechoslovakian court tried him pp. 159-163
A Czechoslovakian court tried him in absentia and condemned him to death for war crimes, including four massacres of civilians by troops und…
By the beginning of 1949 pp. 164-167
By the beginning of 1949 the two projects were gradually merging into a single strategy combining preconflagration psychological warfare and…
4 Despite the official ban pp. 164-167
4 Despite the official ban on hiring ex-Nazis, however, the Labor Service divisions began recruiting Waffen SS volunteers at least as early…
First Latvian labor company formed under Skaistlauks pp. 164-167
The first Latvian labor company, for example, was created on June 27, 1946, under the command of Voldemars Skaistlauks, a former Latvian SS…
The budget for the clandestine pp. 168-171
The budget for the clandestine group was 50,000 deutsche marks per month, according to records seized by German police in 1952, plus an ampl…
The plot unraveled in late pp. 168-171
The plot unraveled in late 1952, however, when a chance arrest by local police led to discovery of the hit list of Social Democratic officia…
intelligence was financing, training, and pp. 168-171
intelligence was financing, training, and arming a squadron of former Waffen SS and Wehrmacht soldiers with about $500,000 per year—and that…
” And Lithia, which began pp. 172-175
” And Lithia, which began under army auspices in November 1947, authorized “liquidation in [the] United States Zone [of Germany] of the Kund…
According to a 1976 Senate pp. 172-175
According to a 1976 Senate investigation, a key official of Operation Bloodstone is the OPC officer who was specifically delegated responsib…
intelligence, and his experience in pp. 172-175
intelligence, and his experience in “fighting the Communists” goes back to the 1917 Russian Revolution.
Secondly, at least one key pp. 176-180
Secondly, at least one key Bloodstone official, Boris Pash, was active in Bloodstone’s early phases in mid-1948, then became chief of the OP…
Thirdly, at least some Bloodstone pp. 176-180
Thirdly, at least some Bloodstone émigrés with backgrounds as Nazi collaborators—former Albanian Minister of Justice Hasan Dosti, for exampl…
”1 Carroll’s 1949 conclusion was pp. 181-184
”1 Carroll’s 1949 conclusion was, in part, that America needed to embrace the former Nazi collaborators as a central tactic in a comprehensi…
”2 The 1949 publication of pp. 181-184
”2 The 1949 publication of Carroll’s article marked a new stage in the development of U.
Most of the region had pp. 181-184
Most of the region had been controlled by Poland between World Wars I and II, but the Soviets claimed it as their own following the Russian…
8 OUN activists had been pp. 185-189
8 OUN activists had been in the business of assassination and terror since the earliest days of the group and were responsible for the 1934…
Both men were freed, however pp. 185-189
Both men were freed, however, in the confusion that followed the German and Soviet invasions of Poland in 1939.
The Nazis poured money and pp. 185-189
The Nazis poured money and arms into the OUN during the two years leading up to the Germans’ 1941 invasion of the USSR.
By mid- 1948 his “Liberation pp. 190-193
By mid- 1948 his “Liberation Council” was receiving a substantial income from American sources, probably through army intelligence. His hand…
Perhaps worst of all, the pp. 190-193
Perhaps worst of all, the OUN had undergone another factional split during the summer of 1948, and some of his erstwhile comrades, men who k…
By the beginning of 1949 pp. 190-193
The 1949 law also contained a provision that eventually rescued Mykola Lebed.
Shandruk traveled to America only pp. 194-197
Shandruk traveled to America only days before Lebed, also arriving in October 1949. It is likely that Shandruk entered the United States und…
31 By the time Mykola pp. 194-197
31 By the time Mykola Lebed arrived in the United States in 1949, the CIA and OPC appear to have discarded any lingering reservations about…
By the time the Americans pp. 194-197
By the time the Americans decided to extend clandestine aid to the guerrillas in 1949, the insurgency was already in serious decline.
*3 As Nazi Germany collapsed pp. 198-202
*3 As Nazi Germany collapsed during late 1944 and early 1945, many senior church officials helped organize a massive campaign of refugee rel…
” Colonel Rudel exclaimed in pp. 203-206
” Colonel Rudel exclaimed in a speech at Kufstein in 1970. “In Rome itself, the transit point of the escape routes, a vast amount was done.…
State Department intelligence report of pp. 203-206
State Department intelligence report of May 1947, “the Vatican … is the largest single organization involved in the illegal movement of emig…
Their strategy was congruent in pp. 203-206
Their strategy was congruent in many important respects with that of Nazi “philosopher” Alfred Rosenberg, and Intermarium leaders establishe…
In case after case, a pp. 207-210
In case after case, a clear continuity of personnel can be established, beginning with the Vatican refugee-smuggling networks in 1945, conti…
The Latvian Fascist Perkonkrust Führer pp. 207-210
The Latvian Fascist Perkonkrust Führer Gustav Celmins, for example, had organized a Latvian SS unit in 1941 and served as a Nazi agent insid…
Celmins entered the United States pp. 207-210
Celmins entered the United States as a displaced person in 1950 and was quickly hired as a teacher in a Russian studies program at Syracuse,…
Barbie’s name, moreover, had been pp. 211-214
Barbie’s name, moreover, had been listed in the CROWCASS directories since 1945 as a suspect in the murder and torture of civilians.
” Rumors concerning Barbie’s employment pp. 211-214
” Rumors concerning Barbie’s employment (and protection) by the Americans began to reach French newspapers and politicians at least as early…
CIC gives Klaus Barbie passage to Argentina pp. 211-214
That, in the final analysis, is why the CIC chose to provide Barbie with a new identity and safe passage to Argentina in 1951, while thousan…
29 McCloy announced the recommendations pp. 215-218
29 McCloy announced the recommendations of this task force in January 1951, only a few days after Seoul had fallen to Communist forces. He b…
By the winter of 1950–1951 pp. 215-218
By the winter of 1950–1951 the most senior levels of the U.
“It was not our job pp. 219-222
“It was not our job to spy on the Russians [at that time],” Bishop concedes in a 1948 memoir of his Romanian experiences. “But we perceived…
Kennan gains oversight of US clandestine operations pp. 219-222
During the 1948 Italian election campaign, according to Lyon, Bishop attempted to build the CIC’s highly secret underground escape operation…
Lyon and the CIC soon pp. 219-222
Lyon and the CIC soon began avoiding Bishop when they could, then cut him off altogether in 1950. Dragonovic managed to carry on without Bis…
Deportation of Hungary's Jews to death camps pp. 223-227
In Hungary Germany installed a more cooperative prime minister in 1944 and succeeded in deporting about 70 percent of the country’s Jewish p…
*Perhaps the most dramatic single pp. 223-227
*Perhaps the most dramatic single escape through church channels was the 1946 deliverance of an entire Ukrainian Waffen SS division— some 11…
Ukrainian SS division surrenders, interned at Rimini pp. 223-227
The Ukrainian SS division surrendered to British troops in early 1945 and was interned at the Rimini POW camp north of Rome. Most of them we…
Vanagis founded for Latvian SS veterans pp. 228-231
in this country as well. The Vanagis began as a self-help and welfare society for Latvian SS veterans in Germany in 1945; many of its leader…
Bloodstone had begun this process on a relatively modest scale, pp. 228-231
Bloodstone had begun this process on a relatively modest scale, with about 250 sponsored immigrants per year. By 1950, however, CIA represen…
against Communist aggression [in Korea]. Whay [sic] are those Latvians pp. 232-235
against Communist aggression [in Korea]. Whay [sic] are those Latvians who did the same in 1944—defend our country Latvia, against Communist…
Some men and women who had once enlisted as agents pp. 232-235
Some men and women who had once enlisted as agents for the Nazi occupiers of their homelands put their skills back to work as inside sources…
The new enlistees were to remain under U.S. Army control, pp. 236-240
The new enlistees were to remain under U.S. Army control, even though the military was eager to cooperate with the CIA on specific missions.…
First Lodge Act recruits arrive at Camp Kilmer pp. 236-240
Italians ? The first known group of Lodge Act recruits arrived by a military airlift at Camp Kilmer, New Jersey, in October 1951. Most were…
at Camp Kilmer in March 1954 is fairly typical. Of pp. 236-240
at Camp Kilmer in March 1954 is fairly typical. Of forty-four new enlistees processed that month, three admitted membership in the Wehrmacht…
Manual, which was prepared by the 970th CIC unit in pp. 241-245
Manual, which was prepared by the 970th CIC unit in the U.S. zone of Germany in 1948. It shows that U.S.
*That is, male, age eighteen to thirty-four, unmarried, and physically pp. 241-245
*That is, male, age eighteen to thirty-four, unmarried, and physically fit. *The past careers of the other recruits in the March 1954 enlist…
The changes in the rhetoric of the extreme Russian nationalist pp. 246-249
The changes in the rhetoric of the extreme Russian nationalist organization Natsional’no-Trudovoi Soyuz (NTS), which is still active in toda…
Constantine Boldyreff was a founder of NTS and a senior pp. 246-249
Constantine Boldyreff was a founder of NTS and a senior leader of the group throughout the war. His wartime career is shrouded in secrecy to…
In any case, the majority of American voters backed Eisenhower, pp. 258-261
In any case, the majority of American voters backed Eisenhower, at least in part because of his proliberation, “let’s get tough with the Com…
intelligence community. He had retailed much of this data piece pp. 262-265
intelligence community. He had retailed much of this data piece by piece to the CIA over the years but by 1952 had decided to make use of hi…
Arthur Bliss Lane, Joe McCarthy, and the rest of the pp. 266-269
Arthur Bliss Lane, Joe McCarthy, and the rest of the liberationist stalwarts balked at the Bohlen nomination. Even Secretary of State Dulles…
Eisenhower nominates Bohlen as ambassador to USSR pp. 266-269
intelligence— was next.54 Eisenhower had nominated Bohlen as U.S. ambassador to the USSR in February 1953, but the nomination had to be conf…
“We’re not in the Boy Scouts,” as latter-day CIA Director pp. 270-274
“We’re not in the Boy Scouts,” as latter-day CIA Director Richard Helms often said. “If we’d wanted to be in the Boy Scouts we would have jo…
“If one is a chosen person, then that means something. pp. 270-274
“If one is a chosen person, then that means something. But if one is a Russian peasant, then that counts for nothing.” *In 1985 the State De…
League for Peace and Freedom in 1955 under public pressure, pp. 275-278
League for Peace and Freedom in 1955 under public pressure, even though Taubert himself claimed to have abandoned Nazi thinking.6 A handful…
He had profited during the war from the Nazi confiscation pp. 279-282
He had profited during the war from the Nazi confiscation of Jewish property, then later from the defeat of Nazi Germany itself. Von Bolschw…
“But they are mostly Jews.”25 At the end of the pp. 283-286
“But they are mostly Jews.”25 At the end of the war von Bolschwing abandoned his SS comrades to their fates as soon as it became profitable…
Von Bolschwing left the Gehlen Organization in late 1949 but pp. 283-286
Von Bolschwing left the Gehlen Organization in late 1949 but retained his U.S. sponsorship in a new operation under even deeper cover.
This particular case stands out because of the far-reaching damage pp. 287-290
This particular case stands out because of the far-reaching damage this spy did to Western intelligence, though it is possible to cite many…
A good example of how this self-censorship worked—and the political pp. 291-295
A good example of how this self-censorship worked—and the political blowback it produced—may be found in the case of the Assembly of Captive…
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN The End of “Liberation” Push came to shove pp. 291-295
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN The End of “Liberation” Push came to shove for the “liberation” program that had provided the policy framework for the ex-…
O’Connor, it will be recalled, had been the U.S. displaced pp. 296-299
O’Connor, it will be recalled, had been the U.S. displaced persons commissioner who had spearheaded the legal revisions that permitted Waffe…
The Reagan wing of the Republican party has historically maintained pp. 300-303
The Reagan wing of the Republican party has historically maintained extremely close ties with the Captive Nations movement. Many top Reagan…
The CIA’s present determination to protect its agent disposal system pp. 308-311
The CIA’s present determination to protect its agent disposal system remains one of the single greatest obstacles to expulsion of known Nazi…
Justice Department has itself proved to be false. “When the pp. 312-315
Justice Department has itself proved to be false. “When the Red Army advanced westward across Poland in 1944 it captured massive quantities…
government during immigration. Therefore, the lawyers say, they can... pp. 312-315
government during immigration. Therefore, the lawyers say, they cannot be deported today.44 In other instances, persons whom some have accus…
charter. Similarly, some ex-SS men insist that they entered the pp. 312-315
charter. Similarly, some ex-SS men insist that they entered the country under the Displaced Persons Act waiver for Baltic SS veterans engine…
The files must be opened; the record must be set pp. 316-322
The files must be opened; the record must be set right. *A 1972 Congressional Research Study finally admitted that this effort had been bank…
Prologue 1. Interview with Allan Ryan, April 18, 1985. For pp. 316-322
Prologue 1. Interview with Allan Ryan, April 18, 1985. For description of events in this section, see author’s notes on August 16, 1983, pre…
For the air force records, see U.S. Air Force, Otto pp. 323-327
For the air force records, see U.S. Air Force, Otto Albrecht Alfred von Bolschwing, “Statement of Civilian Suspect,” Form 1168a, December 22…
America’s Other Voice: The Story of Radio Free Europe and pp. 323-327
America’s Other Voice: The Story of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty (New York: Praeger, 1983). 4.
certain Ukrainian fraternal groups, see Ralph Blumenthal, “CIA Accu... pp. 323-327
certain Ukrainian fraternal groups, see Ralph Blumenthal, “CIA Accused of Aid to ’30s Terrorist,” New York Times, February 6, 1986, and Joe…
interview with the former chief of Mil Amt “C” of pp. 328-332
interview with the former chief of Mil Amt “C” of the RSHA, Lieutenant Colonel Werner Ohletz, a senior German Abwehr officer involved in Sov…
107–304 and 587–636. See also: Dvinov, Politics of the Russian pp. 328-332
107–304 and 587–636. See also: Dvinov, Politics of the Russian Emigration, Dvinov, Documents, George Fischer, Soviet Opposition to Stalin (C…
307925 (Augsburg) in the Berlin Document Center. On Hilger: Alfred pp. 328-332
307925 (Augsburg) in the Berlin Document Center. On Hilger: Alfred Meyer interview, December 30, 1983. See also citations to wartime documen…
cit., p. 259; on Dornberger’s knowledge of atrocities, see “Nieders... pp. 333-337
cit., p. 259; on Dornberger’s knowledge of atrocities, see “Niederschrift über die Besprechung um 6.5.1944 im Büro Generaldirektor Rickhey […
cit., pp. 61–72; Alain Guerin, Le General Gris (Paris: Julliard, pp. 333-337
cit., pp. 61–72; Alain Guerin, Le General Gris (Paris: Julliard, 1969); and Charles Whiting, Gehlen: Germany’s Master Spy (New York: Ballant…
Poppe), Reminiscences, ed. Henry Schwartz (Bellingham, Wash.: Weste... pp. 333-337
Poppe), Reminiscences, ed. Henry Schwartz (Bellingham, Wash.: Western Washington University Center for East Asian Studies, 1983), p. 163ff.
Operations—Pincher,” June 18, 1946 (top secret), cited in Evangelis... pp. 338-342
Operations—Pincher,” June 18, 1946 (top secret), cited in Evangelista’s study. 8.
cit. (Schellenberg’s testimony offers the physical description of A... pp. 338-342
cit. (Schellenberg’s testimony offers the physical description of Akhmeteli.) Secondary sources include: Alwin Ramme, Der Sicherheitsdienst…
11. Interview with Benjamin Ferencz, July 20, 1984. On postwar pp. 338-342
11. Interview with Benjamin Ferencz, July 20, 1984. On postwar work with Augsburg and Hirschfield incident, see “Special Interrogation Repor…
Philby had defected to the USSR. “I knew about the pp. 343-347
Philby had defected to the USSR. “I knew about the Gehlen unit from the summer of 1943 onwards …” he commented in 1977. “It seemed to be no…
2. On IDEA, see Ian McDonald, “Senator [Metcalf] Says Greek pp. 343-347
2. On IDEA, see Ian McDonald, “Senator [Metcalf] Says Greek Leaders Aided Nazis,” Times of London, November 17, 1971, and Jack Anderson, “Th…
Army Staff, NA. For later reporting from a critical perspective pp. 343-347
Army Staff, NA. For later reporting from a critical perspective on CIA activities in Greece, see Yiannis Roubatis and Karen Wynn, “CIA Opera…
Strategy 1945–1950 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), p. ... pp. 348-352
Strategy 1945–1950 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), p. 173ff.
20. On role of Exchange Stabilization Fund as funding source pp. 348-352
20. On role of Exchange Stabilization Fund as funding source for clandestine operations: William Corson interview, March 26, 1984; Bokor int…
Washington Section R&C 78, Bern, June 1, 1944, to July pp. 353-357
Washington Section R&C 78, Bern, June 1, 1944, to July 31, 1944, Entry 134, Box 276, RG 226, NA. 8. The Hungarian incident is discussed in c…
December 11, 1960. Report of Alexander’s death is based on pp. 353-357
December 11, 1960. Report of Alexander’s death is based on Dennis Hayes (president, Foreign Service Association) interview, July 8, 1983.
24. Rodes memo to DDI Frankfurt, May 22, 1947 (top pp. 358-362
24. Rodes memo to DDI Frankfurt, May 22, 1947 (top secret), copy in author’s collection. On Poppe’s work for British and American agencies:…
3. For Carey comment, see New York Herald Tribune, January pp. 358-362
3. For Carey comment, see New York Herald Tribune, January 29, 1950, and Richard Boyer and Herbert Morais, Labor’s Untold Story (New York: U…
16. Kennan correspondence, August 12, 1982; see also “Help for pp. 358-362
16. Kennan correspondence, August 12, 1982; see also “Help for Nazis Held Not Unusual,” New York Times, February 20, 1983. 17.
Kennan gains oversight of US clandestine operations pp. 363-367
Committee for a Free Europe (1948–1949); the National Committee for a Free Europe (1949–1954); the Free Europe Committee, Inc. (1954–1976);…
Both funds placed particular stress on émigré affairs. For an pp. 363-367
Both funds placed particular stress on émigré affairs. For an early Free Russia Fund publication, see George Fischer, ed., Russian éMigré Po…
Thousands of Jewish prisoners were murdered by the SS at pp. 368-372
Thousands of Jewish prisoners were murdered by the SS at the forced-labor camp; hundreds of thousands were killed at the extermination cente…
John S. Guthrie memorandum for the secretary, Security Control Sect... pp. 368-372
John S. Guthrie memorandum for the secretary, Security Control Section, JIG, “Subject: Assignment of Code Word,” December 8, 1947 (top secre…
of public language”; see National Council of Teachers of English, pp. 368-372
of public language”; see National Council of Teachers of English, Quarterly Review of Doublespeak (January 1986), p. 2.
Mykola Lebed INSCOM Dossier No. C 804 3982, “Extract from pp. 373-377
Mykola Lebed INSCOM Dossier No. C 804 3982, “Extract from par 2, MOIC Sub-Region MARBURG, file III-M-1928 Subject: Formation of a Ukrainian…
See also “General Situation Report No. 2, 15 July to pp. 373-377
See also “General Situation Report No. 2, 15 July to 1 September 1945,” Office of Strategic Services Mission for Germany (top secret), p. 5,…
also notes Lebed as “an outstanding organizer and the chief pp. 373-377
also notes Lebed as “an outstanding organizer and the chief of the OUN security service”; see Yaroslav Bilinsky, The Second Soviet Republic:…
509–17 and 527–30. For text and commentary on 1941 Vichy pp. 378-382
509–17 and 527–30. For text and commentary on 1941 Vichy document concerning Vatican position on treatment of Jews discussed in footnote, se…
Army CIC Special Agent Leo J. Pagmotta in December 1946 pp. 378-382
Army CIC Special Agent Leo J. Pagmotta in December 1946 in connection with Operation Circle, an investigation into a mass escape of prisoner…
concerning Buchko is in La Vista, Appendix A, and includes pp. 378-382
concerning Buchko is in La Vista, Appendix A, and includes address of refugee relief agency in Rome. Walter Dushnyck’s glowing “Archbishop B…
150–54. See also George Neagoy, “Memorandum for the Record, Subject: pp. 383-387
150–54. See also George Neagoy, “Memorandum for the Record, Subject: Disposal of Dropped Intelligence Informant,” March 27, 1951 (top secret…
President’s Report, 1953, p. 18ff., and 1954, p. pp. 388-392
President’s Report, 1953, p. 18ff., and 1954, p.
“Six Croatians Convicted in NY of Plots Against Countrymen,” Washin... pp. 388-392
“Six Croatians Convicted in NY of Plots Against Countrymen,” Washington Post, May 16, 1982, p. 12; “6 Croatian Nationalists Given Long Priso…
Ryan, Barbie Report, p. 158, and Allan Ryan interview, May pp. 388-392
Ryan, Barbie Report, p. 158, and Allan Ryan interview, May 9, 1984. 39.
34. On Witsell ruling, see “AGSE 342.18 Subject: Enlistment in pp. 393-397
34. On Witsell ruling, see “AGSE 342.18 Subject: Enlistment in the Regular Army of Aliens,” November 7, 1952, Special Regulations (restricte…
the Soviet Lithuanian government’s account of Jankus’s wartime acti... pp. 393-397
the Soviet Lithuanian government’s account of Jankus’s wartime activities, see Who Is Hiding on Grand Street? (Vilnius: Mintis Publishing Ho…
34–35, and U.S. Department of Justice press statement of August pp. 393-397
34–35, and U.S. Department of Justice press statement of August 16, 1984. On Maikovskis’s ACEN role, see Assembly of Captive European Nation…
For an excellent account of Lane’s lobbying and internal Republican pp. 398-402
For an excellent account of Lane’s lobbying and internal Republican party politics on the “ethnic voters” issue, see Louis L. Gerson, The Hy…
Boldyreff, INSCOM dossier no. D-3675 20B85; Boldyreff interview, Au... pp. 398-402
Boldyreff, INSCOM dossier no. D-3675 20B85; Boldyreff interview, August 8, 1983. 18.
44. Lyman Kirkpatrick, The Real CIA (New York: Macmillan, 1968), pp. 403-407
44. Lyman Kirkpatrick, The Real CIA (New York: Macmillan, 1968), p. 149ff.
wartime exploits. Skorzeny’s own Meine Kommanounternehmen, Krieg oh... pp. 403-407
wartime exploits. Skorzeny’s own Meine Kommanounternehmen, Krieg ohne Fronten (Wiesbaden: Limes Verlag, 1976), also available as Otto Skorze…
John Paton Davies,” Foreign Service Journal (November 1977), p. 15ff., pp. 403-407
John Paton Davies,” Foreign Service Journal (November 1977), p. 15ff., with quote from Dulles on p.
to Luther, January 8, 1941, marked “Urgent!”; Luther to Vizenkonsul pp. 408-412
to Luther, January 8, 1941, marked “Urgent!”; Luther to Vizenkonsul Beuttler, January 13, 1941; Der Chef der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD (…
5. “Set Up Is Revised at Anti-Red Radio,” New York pp. 408-412
5. “Set Up Is Revised at Anti-Red Radio,” New York Times, April 29, 1957, p. 6.
37. 1985 GAO Report, pp. 32–34. pp. 408-412
37. 1985 GAO Report, pp. 32–34.
X [Kennan]: It’s America vs. Russia … Until Russia Is pp. 413-418
X [Kennan]: It’s America vs. Russia … Until Russia Is Forced to Cooperate or Collapse,” Newsweek (July 21, 1947), p.16. 33.
H. Raskin, “3 Agencies Resettling D.P.’s Told to End Contracts pp. 413-418
H. Raskin, “3 Agencies Resettling D.P.’s Told to End Contracts of Leftist Union,” New York Times, May 2, 1951, and “Cut Leftist Union Ties,”…
cit. On clandestine CIA funding of educational and charitable found... pp. 413-418
cit. On clandestine CIA funding of educational and charitable foundations, labor groups, and student organizations, see “Groups Channeling,…
“Die Behandlung des russichen Problems wahrend der Zeit des nationa... pp. 419-424
“Die Behandlung des russichen Problems wahrend der Zeit des national-sozialistischen Regimes in Deutschland,” typescript, n.d. (1946?). Burn…
Soviet Opposition to Stalin. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University P... pp. 419-424
Soviet Opposition to Stalin. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952. ——., ed.
“The Free Europe Committee: American Weapon of the Cold War.” pp. 419-424
“The Free Europe Committee: American Weapon of the Cold War.” Ph.D. dissertation, Carlton University, 1975 (Canadian Thesis on Microfilm Ser…
Louis Hagen. New York: Harper & Bros., 1956. Schmidt, George. pp. 425-430
Louis Hagen. New York: Harper & Bros., 1956. Schmidt, George.
The Waffen SS. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1966. Stephan, pp. 425-430
The Waffen SS. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1966. Stephan, John J.
Area Handbook for Greece, 2d ed. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing pp. 425-430
Area Handbook for Greece, 2d ed. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1977. Kennan, George F.
Report of the Combined Intelligence Objectives Subcommittee. Washin... pp. 431-437
Report of the Combined Intelligence Objectives Subcommittee. Washington, D.C., 1944. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE Case Records U.S.
40–83378-A; 62–118313 serial x2; (deleted file no.); 65–62842 seria... pp. 431-437
40–83378-A; 62–118313 serial x2; (deleted file no.); 65–62842 serials 89, 99; 77–63190 serial 8; 100–89-35 serials 48, 76, 79; 100–392404 se…
ACEN Lobbying Activity: ACEN to Senator John F. Kennedy, March pp. 431-437
ACEN Lobbying Activity: ACEN to Senator John F. Kennedy, March 3, 1958; ACEN to John F. Kennedy, March 17, 1958; Kennedy reply, April 24, 19…
Case No. 4111, CIC Rome Detachment, Zone Five, December 26 pp. 438-443
Case No. 4111, CIC Rome Detachment, Zone Five, December 26 (?), 1946, (secret). Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists.
Joint Intelligence Committee. JIC 634/1, “Vulnerability of Soviet B... pp. 438-443
Joint Intelligence Committee. JIC 634/1, “Vulnerability of Soviet Bloc Armed Forces to Guerrilla Warfare,” September 8, 1953 (top secret), a…
War-Navy Coordinating Committee and State-Army-Navy-Air Force Coord... pp. 444-449
War-Navy Coordinating Committee and State-Army-Navy-Air Force Coordinating Committee Case Files 1944–1949. Wilmington, Del., Scholarly Resou…
Celmins entered the United States pp. 444-449
Policies of the Government of the United States of America Relating to the National Security, vol. III, 1950, and vol. IV, 1951 (top secret)…
EUCOM Annual Narrative Report 1954 (secret), RG 338, NA, Suitland, pp. 444-449
EUCOM Annual Narrative Report 1954 (secret), RG 338, NA, Suitland, Md. EUCOM Annual Report 1954 (secret), Adjutant General’s Office Command,…
Eckhardt, Tibor, 236 Egypt, 248–52 Eichmann, Adolf, xiii, 47, 48n., pp. 460-469
Eckhardt, Tibor, 236 Egypt, 248–52 Eichmann, Adolf, xiii, 47, 48n., 249, 253–54 associates of, 245, 248–50, 290 Einsatzgruppen (mobile execu…
All rights reserved, including without limitation the right to repr... pp. 480-488
All rights reserved, including without limitation the right to reproduce this ebook or any portion thereof in any form or by any means, whet…