Diplomacy

Henry Kissinger

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Cited by (391)

The Suez Crisis 22 Hungary: Upheaval in the Empire... whole source
: The Suez Crisis 22 Hungary: Upheaval in the Empire 23 Khrushchev’s Ultimatum: The Berlin Crisis 1958–63 24 Concepts of Western Unity: Macm…
List of Illustration Page 6 Woodrow Wilson address... whole source
List of Illustration Page 6 Woodrow Wilson addresses the Paris Peace Conference, January 25, 1919. Page 10 Washington’s Farewell Address, ma…
Engraving after portrait by Gilbert Stuart. Page 1... whole source
Engraving after portrait by Gilbert Stuart. Page 17 The United Nations General Assembly. Page 29 Left: Theodore Roosevelt, August 1905.
Right: Woodrow Wilson, July 1919. Page 56 Left: Wi... whole source
Right: Woodrow Wilson, July 1919. Page 56 Left: William of Orange.
THE MAPS French Expansion from 1648 to 1801 320 Ge... whole source
THE MAPS French Expansion from 1648 to 1801 320 German Expansion from 1919 to 1939 321 William Ill’s Grand Alliance from 1701 to 1713
THE MAPS French Expansion from 1648 to 1801 320 Ge... whole source
THE MAPS French Expansion from 1648 to 1801 320 German Expansion from 1919 to 1939 321 William Ill’s Grand Alliance from 1701 to 1713 322 Al
THE MAPS French Expansion from 1648 to 1801 320 Ge... whole source
THE MAPS French Expansion from 1648 to 1801 320 German Expansion from 1919 to 1939 321 William Ill’s Grand Alliance from 1701 to 1713 322 Al…
POWER VACUUMS Both the Peace of Westphalia (1648) ... whole source
POWER VACUUMS Both the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the Treaty of Versailles (1919) created power vacuums on the borders of military heavy…
POWER VACUUMS Both the Peace of Westphalia (1648) ... whole source
POWER VACUUMS Both the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the Treaty of Versailles (1919) created power vacuums on the borders of military heavy…
European congresses, the last of which was held in... whole source
European congresses, the last of which was held in Berlin in 1878, met periodically to sort out solutions to Europe’s major conflicts.
THE BALANCE OF POWER PETRIFIES When war broke out ... whole source
THE BALANCE OF POWER PETRIFIES When war broke out in 1914, the Franco-Russian Alliance was already twenty-three years old, and the Austro-Ge…
Britain joins the Franco-Russian bloc whole source
Great Britain joined the Franco-Russian bloc with agreements in 1904 and 1907.
Great Britain joined the Franco-Russian bloc with ... whole source
Great Britain joined the Franco-Russian bloc with agreements in 1904 and 1907.
COLD WAR SPHERES OF INFLUENCE In the years followi... whole source
COLD WAR SPHERES OF INFLUENCE In the years following 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union established spheres of influence in Europe…
THE POST-COLD WAR WORLD With the collapse of the S... whole source
THE POST-COLD WAR WORLD With the collapse of the Soviet sphere of influence in 1989, new instability has emerged in Central Asia, the Caucas…
Since the time America entered the arena of world ... whole source
Since the time America entered the arena of world politics in 1917, it has been so preponderant in strength and so convinced of the rightnes…
the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Unite... whole source
By the end of the Second World War in 1945, the United States was so powerful (at one point about 35 percent of the world’s entire economic…
Kennedy declared confidently in 1961 that America ... whole source
Kennedy declared confidently in 1961 that America was strong enough to “pay any price, bear any burden” to ensure the success of liberty.
After the dislocations caused by the French Revolu... whole source
After the dislocations caused by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, the leaders of Europe restored the balance of power at the C…
Finally, in 1914, a crisis arose from which no one... whole source
Finally, in 1914, a crisis arose from which no one shrank.
Commodore Perry forcibly opens Japan whole source
For 500 years before it was forcibly opened by Commodore Matthew Perry in 1854, Japan did not even deign to balance the barbarians off again…
After 1794, a series of treaties settled the borde... whole source
After 1794, a series of treaties settled the borders with Canada and Florida in America’s favor, opened the Mi
United States makes the Louisiana Purchase whole source
This culminated in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, which brought to the young country a huge, undefined territory west of the Mississippi Ri…
1820, the United States found a compromise between... whole source
By 1820, the United States found a compromise between the two approaches which enabled it to have it both ways until after the Second World…
John Quincy Adams, then Secretary of State, summed... whole source
John Quincy Adams, then Secretary of State, summed up this attitude in 1821: Wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or s…
was too soon after the 1812 British occupation of ... whole source
It was too soon after the 1812 British occupation of Washington for America to side with the erstwhile mother country.
Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine whole source
In what he called a “Corollary” to the Monroe Doctrine, he proclaimed on December 6, 1904, a general right of intervention by “some civilize…
1902, America had forced Haiti to clear up its deb... whole source
In 1902, America had forced Haiti to clear up its debts with European banks.
1903, it fanned unrest in Panama into a full-scale... whole source
In 1903, it fanned unrest in Panama into a full-scale insurrection.
October 3, 1914, Roosevelt wrote to the British am... whole source
On October 3, 1914, Roosevelt wrote to the British ambassador to Washington (conveniently forgetting his earlier judgm
Wilson's first State of the Union Address whole source
t than vindication of its principles. In Wilson’s first State of the Union Address, on December 2, 1913, he laid down the outline of what la…
his second State of the Union address on December ... whole source
In his second State of the Union address on December 8, 1914, and after the European war had been raging for four months, Wilson rejected an…
Wilson's 'Peace Without Victory' speech whole source
On January 22, 1917, before America had entered the war, Wilson proclaimed its goal to be “peace without victory.”45 Wh
Had Roosevelt or his ideas prevailed in 1912, the ... whole source
Had Roosevelt or his ideas prevailed in 1912, the question of war aims would have been based on an inquiry into the nature of American natio…
Wilson's 'Peace Without Victory' speech whole source
On January 22, 1917, he attacked the international order which had preceded the war as a system of “organized rivalries
wholesome diplomacy” based on “the same high code ... whole source
re wholesome diplomacy” based on “the same high code of honor that we demand of individuals.”53 In 1918, Wilson stated as a requirement of p…
Wilson presents League Covenant to Peace Conference whole source
y such attitudes would resolve crises without war, Wilson told the Peace Conference on February 14, 1919: …throughout this instrument [the L…
This was the case from Italy’s aggressions against... whole source
This was the case from Italy’s aggressions against Abyssinia in 1935 to the Bosnian crisis in 1992.
prince of the Church, Armand Jean du Plessis, Card... whole source
prince of the Church, Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal de Richelieu, First Minister of France from 1624 to 1642.
the Church, Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal de Ri... whole source
of the Church, Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal de Richelieu, First Minister of France from 1624 to 1642.
Out of the failure of these ambitions, a balance o... whole source
Out of the failure of these ambitions, a balance of power emerged, first as a fact of life, then as a system for organizing international re…
1596, while still an archduke, Ferdinand declared,... whole source
In 1596, while still an archduke, Ferdinand declared, “I would rather die than grant any concessions to the
would never have permitted himself to miss the opp... whole source
u would never have permitted himself to miss the opportunity which presented itself to Ferdinand in 1629, the eleventh year of the war.
ich demanded that Protestant sovereigns restore al... whole source
ich demanded that Protestant sovereigns restore all the lands they had seized from the Church since 1555.
POWER VACUUMS Both the Peace of Westphalia (1648) ... whole source
In the century following the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, ending the Thirty Years’ War, the doctrine of raison d’état grew into the guiding…
1751, Voltaire described a “Christian Europe” as “... whole source
In 1751, Voltaire described a “Christian Europe” as “a sort of great republic divided into several states,
trian succession. In the same spirit, the philosop... whole source
trian succession. In the same spirit, the philosopher of history Emmerich de Vattel could write in 1758, the second year of the Seven Years’…
War of the Austrian Succession begins whole source
The first was the War of the Austrian Succession, from 1740 to 1748.
War of the Austrian Succession whole source
The first was the War of the Austrian Succession, from 1740 to 1748.
Prussia was joined by France, Spain, Bavaria, and ... whole source
In it, Prussia was joined by France, Spain, Bavaria, and Saxony—which in 1743 switched sides—while Great Britain supported Austria.
Wilson produced the League of Nations; Carteret fl... whole source
Wilson produced the League of Nations; Carteret flirted with permanent engagements on the Continent; Castlereagh, Foreign Secretary from 181…
Wilson produced the League of Nations; Carteret fl... whole source
Wilson produced the League of Nations; Carteret flirted with permanent engagements on the Continent; Castlereagh, Foreign Secretary from 181…
1807, French armies had set up satellite kingdoms ... whole source
By 1807, French armies had set up satellite kingdoms along the Rhine in Italy and Spain, reduced Prussia to a second-rank power, and gravely…
Congress of Vienna convenes to remake Europe whole source
uring his first exile, at Elba, the victors of the Napoleonic Wars assembled at Vienna in September 1814 to plan the postwar world.
war at all took place among the Great Powers for f... whole source
No war at all took place among the Great Powers for forty years, and after the Crimean War of 1854, no general war for another sixty.
1806, the vestigial Holy Roman Empire was abolishe... whole source
In 1806, the vestigial Holy Roman Empire was abolished.
Had the victors convening at Versailles made a sim... whole source
Had the victors convening at Versailles made a similar alliance in 1918, the world might never have suffered a Second World War. The Holy Al…
1804, Pitt had deflated his proposed crusade for l... whole source
In 1804, Pitt had deflated his proposed crusade for liberal institutions; by 1815, Alexander was imbued wit
1804, Pitt had deflated his proposed crusade for l... whole source
In 1804, Pitt had deflated his proposed crusade for liberal institutions; by 1815, Alexander was imbued with too strong a sense of victory t…
its reserve quite evident as early as the first su... whole source
its reserve quite evident as early as the first such conference, the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818.
During the Greek Revolution of 1821, England inter... whole source
During the Greek Revolution of 1821, England interpreted the Tsar’s desire to protect the Christian population of the collapsing Ottoman Emp…
France admitted at Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle whole source
When Castlereagh attended the first conference at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, France was admitted to the Congress system and Great Britain made…
Castlereagh sets out British policy in State Paper whole source
Castlereagh himself had set forth the British position in a state paper of May 5, 1820.
Metternich driven from power whole source
er states bore the brunt of thwarting Russian expansionism. Metternich’s removal from the scene in 1848 marked the beginning of the end of t…
1854, the Great Powers were at war for the first t... whole source
In 1854, the Great Powers were at war for the first time since the days of Napoleon.
1821, the year before he succeeded Castlereagh, Ca... whole source
In 1821, the year before he succeeded Castlereagh, Canning had called for a policy of “neutrality in word a
ries or irrelevant. Palmerston explained the Briti... whole source
ries or irrelevant. Palmerston explained the British definition of national interest as follows in 1856: “When people ask me… for what is ca…
generally did, nor did they feel concerned about i... whole source
s generally did, nor did they feel concerned about institutions different from their own. Thus, in 1841, Palmerston spelled out for the Brit…
one which every Englishman ought to deprecate, and... whole source
nd one which every Englishman ought to deprecate, and to try to prevent.36 After the Revolution of 1848, Austria became progressively weaker…
Since 1700, public opinion had played an important... whole source
Since 1700, public opinion had played an important role in British foreign policy.
For instance, Great Britain’s support for Turkey i... whole source
For instance, Great Britain’s support for Turkey in the 1870s ended abruptly when Gladstone, who regarded the Turks as morally reprehensible…
mean War produced nearly two decades of conflict: ... whole source
mean War produced nearly two decades of conflict: the war of Piedmont and France against Austria of 1859, the war over Schleswig-Holstein of…
onflict: the war of Piedmont and France against Au... whole source
onflict: the war of Piedmont and France against Austria of 1859, the war over Schleswig-Holstein of 1864, the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, a…
France against Austria of 1859, the war over Schle... whole source
France against Austria of 1859, the war over Schleswig-Holstein of 1864, the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War of 187…
late as the outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War in... whole source
As late as the outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War in 1866—the conflict which ended the Confederation—he wrote to the Austrian Emperor: I mu…
1858, Napoleon told a Piedmontese diplomat: “Austr... whole source
In 1858, Napoleon told a Piedmontese diplomat: “Austria is a cabinet for whom I have always felt, and still
nance.”8 His penchant for revolutionary projects c... whole source
nance.”8 His penchant for revolutionary projects caused him to go to war with Austria over Italy in 1859.
Napoleon’s conduct during the Polish revolt of 186... whole source
Napoleon’s conduct during the Polish revolt of 1863 advanced his journey into isolation.
With the center of gravity of European policy movi... whole source
With the center of gravity of European policy moving toward Germany, France found itself alone. An ominous event occurred in 1864.
considered Prussia the most genuinely national Ger... whole source
He considered Prussia the most genuinely national German state, writing in 1860 that: Prussia personifies the German nationality, religious…
replied to Thiers three days later: “I detest thos... whole source
He replied to Thiers three days later: “I detest those treaties of 1815 which nowadays people want to make the sole basis of our policy.”20…
Treaty of Prague forces Austria out of Germany whole source
At the Treaty of Prague of August 1866, Austria was forced to withdraw from Germany.
one of his craftier moves, Bismarck used Napoleon’... whole source
In one of his craftier moves, Bismarck used Napoleon’s posturing to lure him into declaring war on Prussia in 1870.
Bismarck achieved political prominence as the arch... whole source
Bismarck achieved political prominence as the archconservative opponent of the liberal Revolution of 1848.
1848, Bismarck strenuously fought the elected Parl... whole source
In 1848, Bismarck strenuously fought the elected Parliament’s offer of the German imperial crown to the Prussian King.
diplomacy as a strategic opportunity rather than a... whole source
diplomacy as a strategic opportunity rather than as a threat. When Bismarck delivered a speech in 1850 attacking the conventional wisdom tha…
Closing them off eases the adversary’s calculation... whole source
Closing them off eases the adversary’s calculations, and constricts those of the practitioners of Realpolitik. The break between Gerlach and…
ssian primacy in Germany. When he was appointed am... whole source
ssian primacy in Germany. When he was appointed ambassador to the Assembly of the Confederation in 1852 and ambassador to St.
Petersburg in 1858, Bismarck ascended to positions... whole source
Petersburg in 1858, Bismarck ascended to positions which enabled him to advocate his policies.
1854, during the Crimean War, Bismarck urged that ... whole source
In 1854, during the Crimean War, Bismarck urged that Prussia exploit Austria’s break with Russia and attack
something outside of all possibility we would soon... whole source
as something outside of all possibility we would soon hear more sensible things from there….41 In 1859, during Austria’s war with France and…
Crimean War was a dispatch from Bismarck analyzing... whole source
Crimean War was a dispatch from Bismarck analyzing the situation upon the conclusion of the war in 1856.
1871, he said the following about the Franco-Pruss... whole source
In 1871, he said the following about the Franco-Prussian War: The war represents the German revolution, a greater political event than the F…
rian and the Russian Empires. As for France and Ge... whole source
rian and the Russian Empires. As for France and Germany, the magnitude of Prussia’s victory in the 1870 war had produced a permanent French…
Resentment soon mixed with fear as French leaders ... whole source
Resentment soon mixed with fear as French leaders began to sense that the war of 1870–71 had marked the end of the era of French predominanc…
Upon becoming Ministerpräsident in 1862, Bismarck ... whole source
Upon becoming Ministerpräsident in 1862, Bismarck had asked the Austrian ambassador to convey to his Emperor the startling proposition that
During Russia’s 1877 campaign in the Balkans, Dost... whole source
During Russia’s 1877 campaign in the Balkans, Dostoyevsky wrote: Ask the people; ask the soldier; Why are they arising?
1869, Rostislav Andreievich Fadeyev, a Pan-Slavist... whole source
In 1869, Rostislav Andreievich Fadeyev, a Pan-Slavist officer, wrote in his influential essay, “Opinion on
now, two generations had passed since the executio... whole source
By now, two generations had passed since the execution of Louis XVI; the liberal revolutions of 1848 had been mastered; France, though a rep…
Bismarck forms the Three Emperors' League whole source
Yet Bismarck forged just such an alliance in 1873—the first so-called Three Emperors’ League.
The first occurred in 1875 in the form of a pseudo... whole source
The first occurred in 1875 in the form of a pseudo-crisis, a contrived war scare triggered by an editorial in a leading German
Negotiations would start, during which Russia woul... whole source
Negotiations would start, during which Russia would reduce its demands, at which precise point the whole thing would blow up. In 1876, the B…
Disraeli delivers Crystal Palace speech whole source
“The issue is not a mean one,” he proclaimed in his famous 1872 Crystal Palace speech.
Russian army occupies Samarkand whole source
For instance, after the Russian army occupied Samarkand (in present-day Uzbekistan) in May 1868, Gorchakov told the British Ambassador, Sir…
ned under Russian sovereignty until the collapse o... whole source
ned under Russian sovereignty until the collapse of the Soviet Union more than a century later. In 1872, the same charade was repeated a few…
Bismarck pointed out the perils of mediation by re... whole source
Bismarck pointed out the perils of mediation by referring to an incident in 1851 when Tsar Nicholas I had intervened between Austria and Pru…
sar’s intervention prevent Prussia from ultimately... whole source
sar’s intervention prevent Prussia from ultimately consolidating Northern Germany—the real issue in 1851. Bismarck played the hand he had be…
Russia might defer territorial gains for the sake ... whole source
Russia might defer territorial gains for the sake of legitimacy (as Alexander I did in the Greek rebellion in the 1820s, and Nicholas I duri…
Above all, he had removed the incentives that migh... whole source
Above all, he had removed the incentives that might have turned a local crisis into a general war. In 1882, the year following the second Th…
Austria and Italy conclude Mediterranean Agreement whole source
Finally, in 1887, Bismarck encouraged his two allies, Austria and Italy, to conclude the so-called Mediterranean Agr
Gladstone defeats Disraeli in general election whole source
But the most striking example of the vital new role of public opinion was in Great Britain, when Gladstone defeated Disraeli in 1880 in the…
1881, a new tsar, Alexander III, came to the thron... whole source
In 1881, a new tsar, Alexander III, came to the throne in St.
The Tsar’s suspicions were reinforced by his Danis... whole source
The Tsar’s suspicions were reinforced by his Danish wife, who could not forgive Bismarck for taking Schleswig-Holstein from her native count…
Alexander III declines to renew Three Emperors' League whole source
In this atmosphere, Alexander refused to renew the Three Emperors’ League in 1887. Bismarck, however, was not ready to give up on his Russia…
Emperor William I dies; Frederick III's brief reign whole source
When Emperor William I died in 1888, his son, Frederick (whose liberalism had so worried Bismarck), governed for a mere ninety-eight days be…
1890, the brash young Emperor dismissed Bismarck, ... whole source
In 1890, the brash young Emperor dismissed Bismarck, refusing to govern in the shadow of so towering a figure.
1898, France and Great Britain had been on the ver... whole source
In 1898, France and Great Britain had been on the verge of war over Egypt.
This had been true in the Crimean War of 1854, the... whole source
This had been true in the Crimean War of 1854, the Balkan Wars of 1875–78, and prior to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904. One explanation for…
This had been true in the Crimean War of 1854, the... whole source
This had been true in the Crimean War of 1854, the Balkan Wars of 1875–78, and prior to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904. One explanation for…
This had been true in the Crimean War of 1854, the... whole source
This had been true in the Crimean War of 1854, the Balkan Wars of 1875–78, and prior to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904. One explanation for…
1890, the term “splendid isolation” still accurate... whole source
In 1890, the term “splendid isolation” still accurately described British foreign policy.
French ally against a German foe. A remarkable cha... whole source
a French ally against a German foe. A remarkable change occurred in British foreign policy between 1890 and 1914.
ally against a German foe. A remarkable change occ... whole source
ally against a German foe. A remarkable change occurred in British foreign policy between 1890 and 1914.
Giers’ eventual successor as Foreign Minister, Cou... whole source
Giers’ eventual successor as Foreign Minister, Count Vladimir Lamsdorff, wrote in his diary in early February 1892: They (the French) are al…
1894, a military convention was signed in which Fr... whole source
In 1894, a military convention was signed in which France agreed to aid Russia if Russia was attacked by Germany, or by Austria in combinati…
Whereas the Franco-Russian Agreement of 1891 had b... whole source
Whereas the Franco-Russian Agreement of 1891 had been a diplomatic instrument and could plausibly have been argued to be aimed at Great Brit…
Chamberlain proposes a Teutonic alliance whole source
In a major speech in November 1899, Chamberlain called for a “Teutonic” alliance, consisting of Great Britain, Germany, and the United
hat what should have mattered to them most was Bri... whole source
hat what should have mattered to them most was British neutrality in a Continental war. In October 1900, Salisbury’s poor health forced him…
1902, he stunned Europe by forging an alliance wit... whole source
In 1902, he stunned Europe by forging an alliance with Japan, the first time since Richelieu’s dealings with the Ottoman Turks that any Euro…
The Kaiser chose to make his point while on a crui... whole source
The Kaiser chose to make his point while on a cruise in March 1905.
Algeciras Conference opens whole source
ch Germany had isolated itself became evident at the opening of the Algeciras Conference in January 1906.
Instead of wrecking the Entente Cordiale, it led t... whole source
Instead of wrecking the Entente Cordiale, it led to Franco-British military cooperation and lent impetus to the Anglo-Russian Entente of 190…
Bosnian annexation crisis erupts whole source
Yet, with each new German challenge, the bonds of the Triple Entente grew tighter. In 1908, an international crisis occurred over Bosnia-Her…
result, Austria upset the delicate balance of offs... whole source
As a result, Austria upset the delicate balance of offsetting hatreds. Three generations later, in 1992, the same elemental passions erupted…
But in 1908, Austria reversed that decision, feari... whole source
But in 1908, Austria reversed that decision, fearing its empire was about to dissolve under the impact of Serbi
The Russian Foreign Minister, Sergei Sazonov, wrot... whole source
The Russian Foreign Minister, Sergei Sazonov, wrote to the Tsar in December 1913: “To abandon the Straits to a powerful state would be synon…
The Kaiser, regarding these developments as tests ... whole source
The Kaiser, regarding these developments as tests of his manhood, told his chancellor on February 25, 1914: “Russo-Prussian relations are de…
the Bosnian crisis of 1908, France made it clear t... whole source
In the Bosnian crisis of 1908, France made it clear that it would not go to war over a Balkan issue.
1914, the confrontation between Germany and Austri... whole source
By 1914, the confrontation between Germany and Austria-Hungary on the one side, and the Triple Entente on the other, had turned deadly earne…
The first step in this direction occurred during t... whole source
The first step in this direction occurred during the negotiation for a Franco-Russian military alliance in 1892.
Almost invariably, its definition hinged on who wa... whole source
Almost invariably, its definition hinged on who was perceived to have initiated the hostilities. In May 1892, the Russian negotiator, Adjuta…
February 1914—six months before the war—he wrote a... whole source
In February 1914—six months before the war—he wrote a prophetic memorandum for the Tsar: The main burden of the war
1913, already much too late, he had expressed, qui... whole source
In 1913, already much too late, he had expressed, quite accurately, why German foreign policy proved so uns
Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand whole source
power, and the casus belli as accidental as the preceding diplomacy had been reckless. On June 28, 1914, Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Habsbu…
the Germans too great an honor, for the Kaiser and... whole source
the Germans too great an honor, for the Kaiser and his advisers had no more of a long-range plan in 1914 than they had had during any previo…
But by 1914, legitimacy was no longer a common bon... whole source
But by 1914, legitimacy was no longer a common bond.
The paradox of July 1914 was that the countries wh... whole source
The paradox of July 1914 was that the countries which had political reasons to go to war were not tied to rigid mobilization
CHAPTER NINE The New Face of Diplomacy: Wilson and... whole source
CHAPTER NINE The New Face of Diplomacy: Wilson and the Treaty of Versailles On November 11, 1918, British Prime Minister David Lloyd George…
actices of the prewar international order, a compr... whole source
actices of the prewar international order, a compromise peace would have been made in the spring of 1915.
roying the world order in which their nations had ... whole source
roying the world order in which their nations had coexisted for nearly a century. By the winter of 1914–15, military strategy and foreign po…
September 1915, in a revolutionary departure from ... whole source
In September 1915, in a revolutionary departure from British practice, Foreign Secretary Grey wrote to Wilson’s confi
Thus, when, in May 1916, Wilson advanced for the f... whole source
Thus, when, in May 1916, Wilson advanced for the first time his scheme for a world organization, he was no doubt convinced that it had been…
refrained from offering American participation in ... whole source
refrained from offering American participation in this “universal association.” Finally in January 1917, he took the leap and advocated Amer…
1880, the French had represented 15.7 percent of E... whole source
In 1880, the French had represented 15.7 percent of Europe’s population.
1900, that figure had declined to 9.7 percent. whole source
By 1900, that figure had declined to 9.7 percent.
1920, France had a population of 41 million and Ge... whole source
In 1920, France had a population of 41 million and Germany a population of 65 million, causing the French s
Therefore, when the peacemakers revealed their han... whole source
Therefore, when the peacemakers revealed their handiwork in June 1919, the Germans were shocked and embarked on two decades of systematicall…
Isaiah Bowman, summed up Wilson’s ideas in a memor... whole source
Isaiah Bowman, summed up Wilson’s ideas in a memorandum drafted aboard the ship transporting them to the Peace Conference in December 1918.
produced only “aggression and selfishness and war.... whole source
ys produced only “aggression and selfishness and war.”18 After the plenary session of February 14, 1919, at which Wilson unveiled the League…
litary understanding—very limited indeed—which was... whole source
litary understanding—very limited indeed—which was given effect between Great Britain and France in 1914, there had been no other bond betwe…
And Slovakia was not an enthusiastic part of a Cze... whole source
And Slovakia was not an enthusiastic part of a Czech-dominated state, as it would demonstrate by seceding in 1939 and again in 1992. The new…
And Slovakia was not an enthusiastic part of a Cze... whole source
And Slovakia was not an enthusiastic part of a Czech-dominated state, as it would demonstrate by seceding in 1939 and again in 1992. The new…
The bill for this came due after 1941, in a murder... whole source
The bill for this came due after 1941, in a murderous civil war which started all over again in 1991. Romania acquired millions of Hunga
But for Wilson and the peacemakers at Versailles, ... whole source
But for Wilson and the peacemakers at Versailles, the cause of the war of 1914–18 had to be ascribed to some evil which had to be punished.…
This was how Wilson had perceived the role of coll... whole source
This was how Wilson had perceived the role of collective security as the end of the war approached in September 1918: National purposes have…
Japanese conquest of Manchuria whole source
neffectual that they did more harm than good. At the time of the Japanese conquest of Manchuria in 1932, the League had no machinery for san…
League of Nations expels the Soviet Union whole source
The last act of the League of Nations, which no longer contained Germany, Japan, or Italy, was to expel the Soviet Union after it attacked F…
1924, the staff of the British ground forces had r... whole source
By 1924, the staff of the British ground forces had reached the same conclusion when it predicted that Germ
1924, the Central Department of the British Foreig... whole source
In 1924, the Central Department of the British Foreign Office described the French occupation of the Rhinel
long as Germany is a coherent whole, there is more... whole source
“As long as Germany is a coherent whole, there is more or less a balance of power in Europe,” he wrote in 1923.
letter to Colonel House in 1919, André Tardieu, a ... whole source
In a letter to Colonel House in 1919, André Tardieu, a principal French negotiator at Versailles, predicted that the failure to set up v
The Commission was disbanded in 1926, leaving the ... whole source
The Commission was disbanded in 1926, leaving the verification of German compliance to Allied intelligence services.
After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Germany did... whole source
After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Germany did not feel compelled to invoke any principle other than its victory for the indemnity it
Max Hoffmann, Chief of Staff of the Eastern front,... whole source
Max Hoffmann, Chief of Staff of the Eastern front, understood the balance of forces and put forward brutal terms in January 1918.
ltimatum generated the first significant communist... whole source
ltimatum generated the first significant communist debate on foreign policy, which began in January 1918.
against us difficult.20 The high point of that pol... whole source
em against us difficult.20 The high point of that policy was, of course, the Hitler-Stalin Pact of 1939.
When one of Chicherin’s aides telephoned the Germa... whole source
When one of Chicherin’s aides telephoned the German delegation at the conspiratorial hour of one-fifteen in the morning on April 16, 1922, p…
the end of 1922, with reparations elusive, disarma... whole source
At the end of 1922, with reparations elusive, disarmament controversial, meaningful British security guarantees unavai
French and Belgian troops occupy the Ruhr whole source
In January 1923, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr, Germany’s industrial heartland, without consulting th
some of the arguments of imperial Germany for a Br... whole source
d some of the arguments of imperial Germany for a British alliance, declaring that “the position of 1914 is today reversed.
The son of a beer distributor, Stresemann was born... whole source
The son of a beer distributor, Stresemann was born in Berlin in 1878 and had built his political career by espousing the views of the conser…
became its leader in 1917. whole source
He became its leader in 1917.
For example, he was convinced that Germany had bee... whole source
For example, he was convinced that Germany had been lured into the war by a jealous Great Britain eager to preserve its own primacy. As late…
andoning Poland and Czechoslovakia, or fighting al... whole source
andoning Poland and Czechoslovakia, or fighting alone, which had been its recurring nightmare since 1870 and was not something it was very l…
Locarno Treaties signed whole source
Locarno in effect confirmed both results and laid the basis for Germany’s ultimate assault on the Eastern settlement. Locarno, hailed in 192…
Austen Chamberlain becomes British foreign secretary whole source
’s Western border when Chamberlain replaced the more pro-German Lord Curzon as foreign secretary in 1924. Austen Chamberlain was the scion o…
Inter-Allied Military Control Commission abolished whole source
The Inter-Allied Military Control Commission, which had been created to supervise German disarmament, was abolished in 1927, and its functio…
early as 1920, the then minister of industry, Walt... whole source
As early as 1920, the then minister of industry, Walther Rathenau, had consoled the German military with the argumen
Attending army maneuvers in 1926, shortly after Lo... whole source
Attending army maneuvers in 1926, shortly after Locarno was ratified and at the moment that Briand and Stresemann were meeting at Th
For Stresemann, these interests were straightforwa... whole source
For Stresemann, these interests were straightforward: to restore Germany to its pre-1914 stature, to dispose of the financial burdens of rep…
drew from this assessment the Realpolitik conclusi... whole source
He drew from this assessment the Realpolitik conclusion that he had before him an opportunity to rebuild Germany to at least its pre-1914 le…
early as in his first term in office, in 1924, Lab... whole source
As early as in his first term in office, in 1924, Labour Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald had proclaimed disarmament as his top priority.
All his great foreign policy triumphs occurred in ... whole source
All his great foreign policy triumphs occurred in the first five years of his rule, 1933–38, and were based on his victims’ assumption that…
There were still occasional flashes of intuition, ... whole source
There were still occasional flashes of intuition, as in his design of the campaign against France in 1940 and in his refusal to permit a ret…
There were still occasional flashes of intuition, ... whole source
There were still occasional flashes of intuition, as in his design of the campaign against France in 1940 and in his refusal to permit a ret…
November 29, 1933—six weeks after Hitler had order... whole source
On November 29, 1933—six weeks after Hitler had ordered the German delegation to leave the Disarmament Conference—Baldwi
continued a freeze in the production of military a... whole source
He continued a freeze in the production of military aircraft, which had been instituted in 1932.
April 1940, on the eve of the Nazi invasion of Nor... whole source
In April 1940, on the eve of the Nazi invasion of Norway, he told a secret briefing: Up to now we have succeeded
January 1935, then Foreign Minister Pierre Laval c... whole source
In January 1935, then Foreign Minister Pierre Laval concluded what came close to being a military alliance.
Consequently, he set about carving out an African ... whole source
Consequently, he set about carving out an African empire in 1935 by conquering Abyssinia, Africa’s last independent nation, and, in the proc…
Italy invades Abyssinia whole source
By the time Italy invaded Abyssinia in 1935, the League had an official remedy for such aggression.
For, in 1936, Hitler continued to benefit from his... whole source
For, in 1936, Hitler continued to benefit from his unique combination of psychotic intuition and demonic willpower.
appealed to widespread distrust of the Soviet Unio... whole source
He appealed to widespread distrust of the Soviet Union by claiming his move was a riposte to the Franco-Soviet Pact of 1935.
tions, not even when the French Ambassador in Berl... whole source
tions, not even when the French Ambassador in Berlin, André François-Poncet, warned on November 21, 1935, that a German move on the Rhinelan…
Khrushchev pledges support for wars of national liberation whole source
On January 6, 1961, two weeks before Kennedy’s inauguration, Khrushchev described “wars of nat
Kennedy delivers his first State of the Union Address whole source
ate of the Union Address on January 31, 1961, treated Khrushchev’s speech as proof of the Soviet Uni
In September 1965, the same misunderstanding would occur during the Johnson Administration with resp whole source
In September 1965, the same misunderstanding would occur during the Johnson Administration wi
As early as November 1951, he had struck the theme he would never abandon: force alone was not enoug whole source
he had struck the theme he would never abandon: fo
Kennedy opposes US intervention in French Indochina whole source
In April 1954, during Dulles’ United Action campaign to save Dien Bien Phu, Kennedy, in a
7 By 1956, after France had withdrawn and South Vietnamese independence had been achieved, Kennedy w whole source
France had withdrawn and South Vietnamese independ
By the end of 1961, it had risen to 3,164; by the time Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, the figure whole source
it had risen to 3,164; by the time Kennedy was ass
In 1960, the number of Americans dead was 5; in 1961, 16; in 1963, 123; and in 1964, the last peacet whole source
dead was 5; in 1961, 16; in 1963, 123; and in 1964
In his first defense review, on March 28, 1961, Kennedy restated his central theme: that, no matter whole source
weapons were, it could nevertheless be nibbled awa
Vietnamese Communist Central Committee adopts new war strategy whole source
y Central Committee meeting in December 1963 laid down the new strategy: guerrilla units would be st
Before the coup, infiltration from the North had consisted largely of Southerners who had been regro whole source
North had consisted largely of Southerners who had
On December 21, 1963, McNamara reported to the new President that the security situation within Sout whole source
Vietnam had become very disturbing
At the end of 1966, North Vietnamese Prime Minister Pham Van Dong told Harrison Salisbury of The New whole source
States was far stronger militarily, it would lose
Throughout the 1950s, my thinking on foreign policy had been focused on Europe and on nuclear strate whole source
policy had been focused on Europe and on nuclear strategy
I first began thinking seriously about Vietnam after three visits to that country, in 1965 and 1966, whole source
after three visits to that country, in 1965 and 1966, as a consultant on pacification to Ambassador
Johnson announces the San Antonio Formula whole source
upshot was the so-called San Antonio Formula, devi
On March 11, 1968, Walter Lippmann applied his already well-established critique of containment to V whole source
On March 11, 1968, Walter Lippmann applied his already well-established critique of containme
The same point had already been made in 1966, when Senator Fulbright had criticized the United State whole source
point had already been made in 1966, when Senator
David Halberstam, who was by 1966 an acerbic critic of the war, had himself argued earlier “that Vie whole source
who was by 1966 an acerbic critic of the war, had
Hanoi had decided to negotiate before the 1968 American presidential election, if only to commit bot whole source
Hanoi had decided to negotiate before the 1968 Ame
In each year, including 1968, a truce had been agreed on for that period whole source
truce had been agreed on for that period
In 1965, America was dedicating itself—amidst general approval—to winning a guerrilla war against wh whole source
America was dedicating itself—amidst general appro
By the end of his presidency in 1968, Johnson could no longer appear in public except on military ba whole source
By the end of his presidency in 1968, Johnson could no longer appear in public except on military ba
Although he was an incumbent president, he did not even find it possible to appear at the 1968 natio whole source
he was an incumbent president, he did not even fin
When Nixon came into office in 1969, neither political party had ever advocated unilateral withdrawa whole source
party had ever advocated unilateral withdrawal and no public-opinion poll showed any support for it
The “dove” platform rejected at the 1968 Democratic National Convention had called for a reduction o whole source
Convention had called for a reduction of United St
Over a period of four years, all of these measures were eventually adopted, and they did bring Hanoi whole source
measures were eventually adopted, and they did bri
The American bargaining position was to separate the military and the political issues and it did no whole source
position was to separate the military and the political issues and it did not change after 1971
Hanoi’s position until the breakthrough of October 1972 was to demand an unconditional deadline for whole source
ition until the breakthrough of October 1972 was to demand an unconditional deadline for total Ameri
During each of Le Due Tho’s visits to Paris between 1970 and 1972, five or six meetings would take p whole source
of Le Due Tho’s visits to Paris between 1970 and 1972, five or six meetings would take place over a
During the third round of negotiations, which took place from August 1972 to January 1973, the break whole source
otiations, which took place from August 1972 to January 1973, the breakthrough occurred.
By September 1969, the United States had offered the NLF participation in the political process and whole source
States had offered the NLF participation in the po
Nevertheless, on September 25, 1969, Republican Senator Charles Goodell of New York proclaimed that whole source
Nevertheless, on September 25, 1969, Republican Senator Charles Goodell of New York proclaimed that
Nixon had laid out the American terms for a settlement in two major speeches, on January 25, 1972, a whole source
Nixon had laid out the American terms for a settle
Le Duc Tho accepts Nixon's peace proposals whole source
On October 8, 1972, Le Due Tho accepted Nixon’s key proposals, and Hanoi finally gave up its d
On August 14, 1972, I had told Thieu that, if Hanoi accepted President Nixon’s proposals as they sto whole source
I had told Thieu that, if Hanoi accepted President
In 1975, of course, the American effort in Indochina ended in a debacle which might have occurred at whole source
point had America’s objective been capitulation
But neither the Administration nor the American people ever sought that objective; in the election c whole source
candidates had advocated compromise, not capitulation
In 1972, the candidate urging capitulation was defeated in a landslide whole source
capitulation was defeated in a landslide
The picture-perfect families gracing the television screens of the 1950s had been the cultural suppo whole source
s had been the cultural support group for the mora
After a relatively brief interval, Americans recovered their bearing in the 1980s whole source
mericans recovered their bearing in the 1980s.
By the 1990s, free peoples everywhere were again looking to America for guidance in constructing yet whole source
everywhere were again looking to America for guidance in constructing yet another new world order
Khrushchev’s revelations in 1956 of the brutalities of Stalin’s rule, and the Soviet invasion of Cze whole source
Khrushchev’s revelations in 1956 of the brutalities of Stalin’s rule, and the Soviet invasion of Cze
But the America of the late 1960s—stalemated in Indochina and torn by domestic conflict—required a m whole source
But the America of the late 1960s—stalemated in Indochina and torn by domestic conflict—required a m
Nixon stated the following in an interview with Time magazine on January 3, 1972: whole source
erview with Time magazine on January 3, 1972:
By the early 1970s, both of these schools of thought were being challenged by a new radicalism whole source
thought were being challenged by a new radicalism
Four such annual reports on American foreign policy were issued starting in 1970 whole source
policy were issued starting in 1970
The President’s first annual report on foreign policy, on February 18, 1970, expressed this view: whole source
port on foreign policy, on February 18, 1970, expressed this view:
The 1971 report repeated the same theme: “The internal order of the USSR, as such, is not an object whole source
The 1971 report repeated the same theme: “The internal order of the USSR, as such, i
Even while the Vietnam War was raging, the Nixon Administration reacted neuralgically to any perceiv whole source
War was raging, the Nixon Administration reacted n
Nixon parted company with the fathers of containment and chose a path reminiscent of Churchill, who whole source
a path reminiscent of Churchill, who in 1953 had called for talks with Moscow after Stalin’s death.
Nixon expressed these views in a letter to Cabinet members concerned with national security on Febru whole source
d with national security on February 4, 1969, two weeks after taking the oath of office:
In The New York Times of April 18, 1969, “officials” described arms agreements with the Soviet Union whole source
In The New York Times of April 18, 1969, “officials” described arms agreements with the Soviet Union
On June 3, 1969, The New York Times called American trade restrictions linked to other issues “self- whole source
On June 3, 1969, The New York Times called American trade restrictions linked to other issu
A policy statement I drafted for Nelson Rockefeller’s bid for the 1968 Republican presidential nomin whole source
nomination had stated: “…I would begin a dialogue with communist China
In October 1967, he had written in Foreign Affairs: whole source
he had written in Foreign Affairs:
In a magazine interview in September 1968, he stated: “We must not forget China whole source
In a magazine interview in September 1968, he stated: “We must not forget China.
On April 1, 1969—two months after Nixon took his oath of office—Lin Piao, China’s Defense Minister, whole source
who was about to be named Mao’s heir, in a report
Lin Piao also reaffirmed the statement Mao had made in 1965 to journalist Edgar Snow—that China had whole source
Mao had made in 1965 to journalist Edgar Snow—that
Mao seats Edgar Snow at National Day parade whole source
nese Independence Day parade in October 1970 was lost on us.
On the theory that it might have more to offer to the United States than China, the Kremlin even ima whole source
hnev clumsily proposed to Nixon in both 1973 and 1974.
Detente introduced a new fluidity to European diplomacy, a theatre that had been virtually petrified whole source
that had been virtually petrified since the final
Willy Brandt elected West German Chancellor whole source
Brandt was elected Chancellor in September 1969, s
After the Berlin Wall was built in 1961, the issue of German unification gradually disappeared from whole source
Wall was built in 1961, the issue of German unific
These conditions came about after the 1973 Middle East War whole source
These conditions came about after the 1973 Middle East War.
Secretary Rogers presents Middle East peace plan whole source
In 1969, Secretary Rogers presented a plan, subsequently named after him, which end
The first sign that the Nixon strategy was having an impact came in 1972 whole source
strategy was having an impact came in 1972
A great part of the 1970s thus turned into an elaboration of the conflict over themes which had been whole source
which had been part and parcel of previous great A
The McGovern candidacy in 1972 had completed the disillusionment of these self-styled neoconservativ whole source
The McGovern candidacy in 1972 had completed the disillusionment of these self-styled neoconservativ
Ironically, by 1973, Nixon’s policy had so tranquilized East-West relations that it became safe to c whole source
policy had so tranquilized East-West relations that it became safe to challenge it at home
In June 1974, Senator Henry Jackson circulated to his Subcommittee on Arms Control a critique of det whole source
In June 1974, Senator Henry Jackson circulated to his Subcommittee on Arms Control a cri
I stated the analysis underlying detente in March 1976 during the Ford Administration, which in effe whole source
he analysis underlying detente in March 1976 during the Ford Administration, which in effect pursued
But the Congress reduced the number of sites every year so that the Pentagon by 1971 had included on whole source
ites every year so that the Pentagon by 1971 had included only two sites for the next budget.
The Jackson forces were relatively tolerant of geopolitical changes (Jackson voted against aid to th whole source
forces were relatively tolerant of geopolitical ch
Prior to 1969, such emigration had never been on the agenda of the East-West dialogue; all previous whole source
emigration had never been on the agenda of the Eas
In 1968, only 400 Jews had been permitted to emigrate from the Soviet Union, and no democratic count whole source
Jews had been permitted to emigrate from the Sovie
The New York Times had warned editorially in 1971 that “the tactic of withholding American trade as whole source
Times had warned editorially in 1971 that “the tac
The President was in the process of being impeached; the wounds of Vietnam were still open; and dist whole source
President was in the process of being impeached; t
The way the debate developed in the early 1970s, however, prevented an appropriate balance from bein whole source
e way the debate developed in the early 1970s, however, prevented an appropriate balance from being
Thus, in 1971 the Nixon Administration decided to add the European Security Conference to its list o whole source
Thus, in 1971 the Nixon Administration decided to add the European Security Conference to
Then, in 1975, the Conference emerged from obscurity when it was announced that agreements had been whole source
it was announced that agreements had been reached
Ford signs the Helsinki Final Act whole source
Ford was accused of a historic sellout for attendi
The collapse of Indochina in 1975 had been followed in America by a retreat from Angola and a deepen whole source
The collapse of Indochina in 1975 had been followed in America by a retreat from Angola and a deepen
At one moment, at the beginning of the 1980s, it was as if communist momentum might sweep all before whole source
it was as if communist momentum might sweep all be
Stalin issues his 1952 Peace Note on Germany whole source
have had a foreboding of the real balance of force
Whereas Reagan’s predecessors had invoked American principles as the underpinning of a particular in whole source
predecessors had invoked American principles as th
3 It would be the precursor of his 1983 description of the Soviet Union as the “evil empire,” a dire whole source
3 It would be the precursor of his 1983 description of the Soviet Union as the “evil empire,” a dire
Reagan's Westminster address to British Parliament whole source
of the House of Lords in London in June 1982, he described his perception of the Soviet Union:
Reagan and his advisers went a step further by treating human rights as a tool for overthrowing comm whole source
ate of the Union Address on January 25, 1984: “Governments which rest upon the consent of the govern
”14 At Westminster in 1982, Reagan, hailing the tide of democracy around the world, called on the fr whole source
”14 At Westminster in 1982, Reagan, hailing the tide of democracy around the world, called on the fr
Most of the Soviet gains of the 1970s were reversed—though several of these retreats did not take pl whole source
s were reversed—though several of these retreats did not take place until the Bush Administration
After the overthrow of Schmidt in 1982, the German Social Democratic Party seemed to be returning to whole source
After the overthrow of Schmidt in 1982, the German Social Democratic Party seemed to be returning to
Gromyko warns Bonn over Pershing deployment whole source
In early 1983, Gromyko visited Bonn to warn that the Soviets would walk out of the Geneva
Kohl visits Kremlin as Andropov warns on Pershings whole source
When Kohl visited the Kremlin in July 1983, Andropov warned the German Chancellor that, if he accept
Reagan announces MX missile deployment whole source
he was deploying the MX intercontinental missiles
Reagan and Gorbachev meet at Reykjavik summit whole source
happened most dramatically at Reagan’s 1986 summit meeting with Gorbachev at Reykjavik.
Such a diplomacy was essentially what Churchill had proposed when he returned to office in 1951 whole source
diplomacy was essentially what Churchill had proposed when he returned to office in 1951
When Gorbachev assumed office in 1985, he was the leader of a nuclear superpower which was in a stat whole source
he was the leader of a nuclear superpower which was in a state of economic and social decay
When he was toppled from power in 1991, the Soviet army had thrown its support behind his rival, Bor whole source
he was toppled from power in 1991, the Soviet army
Gorbachev becomes Soviet General Secretary whole source
Gorbachev was anointed General Secretary
In early 1987, I had a meeting with Anatoly Dobrynin, who was then head of the International Departm whole source
I had a meeting with Anatoly Dobrynin, who was the
The self-proclaimed “new thinking,” Gorbachev declared in November 1987, “has started to make its wa whole source
Gorbachev declared in November 1987, “has started
By the mid-1980s, Soviet policymakers faced an agenda on which any one item would have been difficul whole source
By the mid-1980s, Soviet policymakers faced an agenda on which any one item would have been
He had come into office confronted by a restive Poland in which, since 1980, Solidarity had become a whole source
He had come into office confronted by a restive Po
Jaruzelski suppresses Solidarity in Poland whole source
Solidarity had re-emerged as a political force, which Jaruzelski could not ignore
Ten years earlier, that might have worked; by the late 1980s, Gorbachev could not catch up with the whole source
er, that might have worked; by the late 1980s, Gorbachev could not catch up with the power curve.
The first time I met him, in early 1987, he was jaunty and exuded every confidence that the tinkerin whole source
he was jaunty and exuded every confidence that the
When we met in early 1989, he told me how he and Shevardnadze had concluded sometime in the 1970s th whole source
Shevardnadze had concluded sometime in the 1970s t
Baltic States secede as the USSR disintegrates whole source
By 1990, the Baltic States seceded and the Soviet Union began to disintegrate.
The ending of the Cold War, sought by American policy through eight administrations of both politica whole source
Kennan had foreseen in 1947
Communists and Nationalists gain in Russian election whole source
sian parliamentary election of December 1993, the Communist and Nationalist Parties together achieve
Clinton offers new NATO vision at 1994 summit whole source
they were based on the expectation of confrontatio
Clinton proposes a Pacific Community at APEC whole source
Community made by Clinton at a meeting with the Asian heads of government in 1993
At a growth rate of 8 percent, which is less than it has maintained over the 1980s, China’s Gross Na whole source
is less than it has maintained over the 1980s, China’s Gross National Product will approach that of
When, in 1992, then Japanese Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa was asked whether Japan would accept a N whole source
Miyazawa was asked whether Japan would accept a No
For four years after the events of Tiananmen Square in 1989, this dialogue was inhibited by the Amer whole source
dialogue was inhibited by the American refusal to
The Rio Treaty of 1947 and the Pact of Bogotá of 1948 provided a security component that was institu whole source
that was institutionalized in the Organization of American States
Kennedy launches the Alliance for Progress whole source
policy was doomed by the statist orientation of the recipients
OBSERVATIONS: Selected Speeches and Essays, 1982–1984 whole source
RVATIONS: Selected Speeches and Essays, 1982–1984
, The Shaping of American Diplomacy (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1956), vol whole source
rican Diplomacy (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1956), vol.
Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (New York/Oxford: Oxford Universi whole source
w York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), p.
, John Quincy Adams and American Continental Empire (Chicago: Times Books, 1965), p whole source
ntinental Empire (Chicago: Times Books, 1965), p.
Quoted in Wilfried Radewahn, Die Pariser Presse und die Deutsche Frage (Frankfurt, 1977), p whole source
esse und die Deutsche Frage (Frankfurt, 1977), p.
Kliuchevsky, A Course in Russian History: The Seventeenth Century, trans, by Natalie Duddington (Chi whole source
Duddington (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1968), p.
Kennan, Decline of Bismarck’s European Order (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), p whole source
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), p.
: University Publications of America, 1983), part I, vol whole source
: University Publications of America, 1983), part I, vol.
Quoted in Klaus Wernecke, Der Wille zur Weltgeltung: Aussenpolitik und Öffentlichkeit am Vorabend de whole source
end des Ersten Weltkrieges (Düsseldorf, 1970), p.
Kennan, The Fateful Alliance: France, Russia and the Coming of the First World War (New York: Panthe whole source
he First World War (New York: Pantheon, 1984), Appendix II, p.
Taylor, The Origins of the Second World War (New York: Atheneum, 1983), pp whole source
e Second World War (New York: Atheneum, 1983), pp.
Quoted in Martin Gilbert, Churchill: A Life (New York: Henry Holt, 1991), p whole source
hurchill: A Life (New York: Henry Holt, 1991), p.
Quoted in Paul Johnson, Modern Times: The World from the Twenties to the Eighties (New York: Harper whole source
o the Eighties (New York: Harper & Row, 1983), p.
James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970) whole source
m (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970), p.
Quoted in Elliott Roosevelt, As He Saw It (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1946), pp whole source
It (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1946), pp.
4, The Hinge of Fate (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950), p whole source
inge of Fate (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950), p.
Quoted in Frances Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew (New York: Viking, 1946), pp whole source
The Roosevelt I Knew (New York: Viking, 1946), pp.
6, Triumph and Tragedy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1953), p whole source
and Tragedy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1953), p.
Franklin Roosevelt’s Inaugural Address, January 20, 1945, in The Presidents Speak, annotated by Davi whole source
sevelt’s Inaugural Address, January 20, 1945, in The Presidents Speak, annotated by Davis Newton Lot
House of Representatives, Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, Military Functions: Natio whole source
ry Establishment Appropriation Bill for 1949, Hearings, 80th Cong.
Policy,” remarks before the National Press Club, Washington, January 12, 1950, in U whole source
nal Press Club, Washington, January 12, 1950, in U.
Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, with an Introduction, Commentary, and Notes by Edward Crankshaw, t whole source
Strobe Talbott (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), pp.
Dulles press conference remarks, December 18, 1956, in State Bulletin, vol whole source
press conference remarks, December 18, 1956, in State Bulletin, vol.
Quoted in Herman Finer, Dulles over Suez: The Theory and Practice of His Diplomacy (Chicago: Quadran whole source
s Diplomacy (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1964), p.
“US Support for Baghdad Pact,” Department of State press release 604, November 29, 1956, in State Bu whole source
f State press release 604, November 29, 1956, in State Bulletin, vol.
Press Conference on April 19, 1963, quoted in Harold van B whole source
Press Conference on April 19, 1963, quoted in Harold van B.
Cleveland, The Atlantic Idea and Its European Rivals (New York: Published for the Council on Foreign whole source
il on Foreign Relations by McGraw-Hill, 1966), p.
“The Common Declaration and the Treaty Between the French Republic and the Federal Republic of Germa whole source
deral Republic of Germany,” January 22, 1963, quoted in Roy Macridis, De Gaulle, Implacable Ally (Ne
, Cambodia 1975–1978: Rendezvous with Death (Princeton, N whole source
, Cambodia 1975–1978: Rendezvous with Death (Princeton, N.
“Fourth Annual Report to the Congress on United States Foreign Policy,” May 3, 1973, in Public Paper whole source
n United States Foreign Policy,” May 3, 1973, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United State
Second Supplemental Appropriations Bill for FY1973 (HR 9055-PL93–50) whole source
Supplemental Appropriations Bill for FY1973 (HR 9055-PL93–50).
Excerpts of Gorbachev’s speech to the Council of Europe in Strasbourg, France, July 6, 1989, in The whole source
f Europe in Strasbourg, France, July 6, 1989, in The New York Times, July 7, 1989, p.
“Gorbachev, in Finland, Disavows Any Right of Regional Intervention,” The New York Times, October 26 whole source
ntion,” The New York Times, October 26, 1989, p.
“Gorbachev Lends Honecker a Hand,” The New York Times, October 7, 1989, p whole source
a Hand,” The New York Times, October 7, 1989, p.
Arab-Israeli War and Kissinger's shuttle diplomacy whole source
Arab-Israeli War of 1973 (Yom Kippur War), 537, 593, 614, 713, 738, 739, 743–44, 766
Berlin blockade (1948), 190, 469, 473–74, 476, 495, 498, 500, 569, 584, 624 whole source
Berlin blockade (1948), 190, 469, 473–74, 476, 495, 498, 500, 569, 584, 624
Foreign Ministers’ Conferences (1945–46), 437–38, 446 whole source
Foreign Ministers’ Conferences (1945–46), 437–38, 446
Geneva Accords (1954), 633, 634–36, 637, 639, 651, 719 whole source
Geneva Accords (1954), 633, 634–36, 637, 639, 651, 719
Hungarian Revolution (1956), 519, 548, 550–67, 595 whole source
Hungarian Revolution (1956), 519, 548, 550–67, 595
Israeli-Palestinian Peace Agreement (1993), 528, 740 whole source
Israeli-Palestinian Peace Agreement (1993), 528, 740
Potsdam Conference (1945), 398, 433–37, 446, 494, 506 whole source
Potsdam Conference (1945), 398, 433–37, 446, 494, 506
Rapallo Conference (1967), 246, 258, 262, 263–65, 270, 334–35 whole source
Rapallo Conference (1967), 246, 258, 262, 263–65, 270, 334–35
Yalta Conference (1945), 371, 396, 410, 424, 426, 432, 434, 438, 494, 625 whole source
Yalta Conference (1945), 371, 396, 410, 424, 426, 432, 434, 438, 494, 625
Franco's coup triggers the Spanish Civil War whole source
In July 1936, a military coup led by General Francisco Franco had triggered the Spanish Civil War.
Hitler outlines conquest plans at Hossbach meeting whole source
On November 5, 1937, he called a meeting of his war minister, the commanders-in-chief of the military services, and his foreign minister and…
French and British leaders meet in London whole source
In this atmosphere, French and British leaders met in London on November 29–30, 1937, to chart a common course.
German troops march into Austria in the Anschluss whole source
on March 12, 1938, German troops marched into Austria. There was no resistance, and the Austrian population, much of it deliriously joyful
Halifax reminds France that Locarno guarantee applies only to French border whole source
On March 22, shortly after the annexation of Austria, Halifax reminded the French leaders that the Locarno guarantee applied only to the Fre…
Roosevelt suggests holding negotiations on neutral ground regarding Czechoslovakia whole source
In September, President Roosevelt suggested holding a negotiation on some neutral ground.
Chamberlain meets Hitler at Berchtesgaden whole source
Chamberlain decided to end the tension on September 15 by visiting Hitler. Hitler showed his disdain by choosing Berchtesgaden as the meetin…
Hitler escalates demands at Bad Godesberg whole source
At Bad Godesberg on September 22, Hitler raised the ante and made it clear that he sought the abject humiliation of Czechoslovakia.
Munich Conference dismembers Czechoslovakia whole source
The four leaders met on September 29 in Munich, the birthplace of the Nazi Party, the sort of symbolism victors reserve for themselves.
Allied landing in North Africa whole source
Roosevelt supported the landing in North Africa in November 1942 and, after the conquest of the northern shore of the Mediterranean
Casablanca Conference declares unconditional surrender whole source
the policy of unconditional surrender promulgated by Roosevelt and Churchill at Casablanca in January 1943
Allied landing in Italy whole source
a landing in Italy in the spring of 1943, which knocked Italy out of the war
Second front opens in Normandy whole source
The second front in Normandy did not come about until June 1944, by which time Germany was so weakened that Allied casualties were greatly r…
Molotov sent to London for postwar talks whole source
Stalin next tried to bring matters to a head by sending Molotov to London in May 1942.
Ridgway's spring offensive retakes Seoul whole source
In the spring of 1951, a new American offensive under General Ridgway was grinding its way north
Communists propose Korean armistice talks whole source
in June 1951, the communists proposed armistice negotiations
Soviet Union launches Sputnik satellite whole source
when, in October 1957, the Soviets launched the Sputnik, an artificial satellite, into an earth orbit
Khrushchev issues the Berlin Ultimatum whole source
On November 27, Khrushchev transposed the essence of that speech into formal notes to the United States, Great Britain, and France declaring…
Khrushchev submits draft Berlin peace treaty whole source
On January 10, 1959, Khrushchev submitted to the other three occupying powers a draft peace treaty which defined the new status of both Berl…
Schacht received in Paris by Léon Blum whole source
we cannot achieve anything if we treat ideological barriers as insurmountable.
Stalin discusses postwar borders with Eden in Moscow whole source
Declarations of principle, he said, were like algebra; he preferred practical arithmetic.
Maisky raises Stalin's territorial demands in London whole source
The Soviet Union now demanded pacts of mutual assistance with Romania and Finland for the postwar period.
Khrushchev's speech to the Twentieth Party Congress whole source
the Twentieth Party Congress in February 1956
Khrushchev speaks to Seventh Congress of Bulgarian Communist Party on economic superiority whole source
We are firmly convinced that the time is approaching when socialist countries will outstrip the most developed capitalist countries
Khrushchev issues the Berlin ultimatum whole source
the Soviet Union intended to turn control of its access over to its East German satellite.
Lord Halifax visits Hitler at Berchtesgaden whole source
as the bulwark of Europe against Bolshevism