World Order

Henry Kissinger

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Event of 1099 whole source
The Crusades—forays led by orders of Christian knights into the historic Holy Land that Islam had incorporated in the seventh century—took J…
Event of 1526 whole source
In 1526, France, considering itself surrounded by Habsburg power in Spain to its south and the Habsburg-led Holy Roman Empire to its east, p…
Event of 1441 whole source
In November 2002, the Security Council passed Resolution 1441, “deploring” Iraq’s decade of noncompliance, deciding that “Iraq has been and…
Event of 2008 whole source
Yet they also bring conflicting: See, for example, Ofeibea Quist-Arcton, “Text Messages Used to Incite Violence in Kenya,” National Public R…
Event of 1480 whole source
Two and a half centuries of Mongol suzerainty (1237–1480) and the subsequent struggle to restore a coherent state based around the Duchy of…
Event of 1843 whole source
Russia, the French traveler the Marquis de Custine claimed in 1843—from the perspective of a France restrained and a Europe reshaped by Russ…
Event of 1917 whole source
” This process developed into a national outlook and propelled the onetime Duchy of Moscow across the Eurasian landmass to become the world…
Event of 1498 whole source
When divided—as it often was—into competing kingdoms, India was a lure for invaders, traders, and spiritual seekers (some fulfilling multipl…
Event of 1501 whole source
“the sole Emperor of all the Christians”: Epistle of Filofei of Pskov, 1500 or 1501, as quoted in Geoffrey Hosking, Russia: People and Empir…
Metternich left office in 1848 whole source
Metternich left office in 1848.
Event of 1519 whole source
Shortly after, in 1519, he prevailed in the election for the post of Holy Roman Emperor, making him Charlemagne’s formal successor.
Event of 1558 whole source
A full flowering of the medieval concept of world order was envisioned only briefly with the rise of the sixteenth-century Habsburg prince C…
Event of 1521 whole source
Machiavelli’s treatises on statesmanship: See, for example, Niccolò Machiavelli, The Art of War (1521), Discourses on the First Ten Books of…
Event of 1532 whole source
Machiavelli’s treatises on statesmanship: See, for example, Niccolò Machiavelli, The Art of War (1521), Discourses on the First Ten Books of…
Event of 1734 whole source
Enlightment governance: As Alexander Pope remarked in 1734, “For forms of government let fools contest; / Whatever is best administered is b…
How was one to conceive of the inhabitants of regions no one had known existed whole source
How was one to conceive of the inhabitants of regions no one had known existed? How did they fit into the medieval cosmology of empire and p…
Event of 1624 whole source
France’s chief minister from 1624 to 1642, Armand-Jean du Plessis, Cardinal de Richelieu, was the first statesman to overcome these limitati…
Event of 1590 whole source
In 1590, the warrior Toyotomi Hideyoshi—having bested his rivals, unified Japan, and brought more than a century of civil conflict to a clos…
Event of 1673 whole source
Foreign trade with European countries was restricted to a few specified coastal cities; by 1673, all but the Dutch had been expelled, and th…
Event of 1618 whole source
A century of sectarian conflict and political upheaval across Central Europe had culminated in the Thirty Years’ War of 1618–48—a conflagrat…
“We shall find that the God of Israel”: John Winthrop, “A Model of Christian Charity” (1630) whole source
“We shall find that the God of Israel”: John Winthrop, “A Model of Christian Charity” (1630).
Event of 1859 whole source
“candidly confess[ed]: Jefferson to Monroe, October 24, 1823, as excerpted in “Continental Policy of the United States: The Acquisition of C…
Government Printing Office, 1864), Document No whole source
Government Printing Office, 1864), Document No.
Putnam’s Sons, 1892–99), 8:158–59, quoted in Robert W whole source
Putnam’s Sons, 1892–99), 8:158–59, quoted in Robert W.
Event of 1910 whole source
“In new and wild communities”: Theodore Roosevelt, “International Peace,” Nobel lecture, May 5, 1910, in Peace: 1901–1925: Nobel Lectures (S…
1958,” in Mao Papers: Anthology and Bibliography, ed whole source
1958,” in Mao Papers: Anthology and Bibliography, ed.
Event of 1648 whole source
In the January 1648 Peace of Münster, Spain recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic, capping an eight-decades-long Dutch revolt th…
Event of 1661 whole source
Louis XIV took full control of the French crown in 1661 and developed Richelieu’s concept of governance to unprecedented levels.
” In 1682, France’s North American territories were named “Louisiana whole source
” In 1682, France’s North American territories were named “Louisiana.
Event of 1750 whole source
WILSON, Redirect: The Surprising New Science of Psychological Change IAN KERSHAW, The End: Hitler’s Germany, 1944-45 T M DEVINE, To the En…
Event of 1800 whole source
PRINZ, Beyond Human Nature: How Culture and Experience Shape Our Lives ROBERT HOLLAND, Blue-Water Empire: The British in the Mediterranean…
ROBERT BICKERS, The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 1832-1914 whole source
ROBERT BICKERS, The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 1832-1914
ROBERT BICKERS, The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 1832-1914 whole source
ROBERT BICKERS, The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 1832-1914
DAVID STEVENSON, With Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in 1918 whole source
DAVID STEVENSON, With Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in 1918
Event of 1787 whole source
” In the opening essay of The Federalist Papers, published in 1787, Alexander Hamilton described the new republic as “an empire in many resp…
Event of 1789 whole source
“to acquiesce in some qualified plan”: Edmund Burke to Charles-Jean-François Depont, November 1789, in On Empire, Liberty, and Reform, 412–1…
Event of 1793 whole source
Japan drew from the Western challenge a conclusion contrary to that of China after the appearance of a British envoy in 1793 (discussed in t…
Event of 1894 whole source
When an 1894 dispute over relative Japanese and Chinese influence in Korea culminated in war, Japan prevailed decisively.
In 1937, Japan declared war on China in order to subjugate additional Chinese territory whole source
In 1937, Japan declared war on China in order to subjugate additional Chinese territory.
Event of 1804 whole source
At the climactic moment of his coronation as Emperor in 1804, Napoleon, unlike Charlemagne, refusing to be legitimized by a power other than…
Event of 1806 whole source
An illustration of Napoleon’s impact occurred on October 13, 1806, one day before the Battle of Jena, where the Prussian army was decisively…
Event of 1812 whole source
Not until Napoleon succumbed to the temptation to enter territories where local resources were insufficient for the support of a huge army—S…
He was appointed Foreign Minister in 1809 and Chancellor in 1821, serving until 1848 whole source
He was appointed Foreign Minister in 1809 and Chancellor in 1821, serving until 1848.
Event of 1841 whole source
Britain’s Foreign Minister (later Prime Minister) Lord Palmerston offered a classic illustration when, in 1841, he learned of a message from…
Event of 1848 whole source
It was only after the element of legitimacy in this international order was shaken by the failed revolutions of 1848 that balance was interp…
Event of 1853 whole source
Finally, the Crimean War of 1853–56 broke up the unity of the conservative states—Austria, Prussia, and Russia—which had been one of the two…
And within less than three years—in 1818—he managed France’s entry into the Quadruple Alliance whole source
And within less than three years—in 1818—he managed France’s entry into the Quadruple Alliance.
Event of 1821 whole source
Its conferences acted on a series of crises, attempting to distill a common course: the revolutions in Naples in 1820 and in Spain in 1820–2…
Event of 1830 whole source
A good example of the efficacy of the Vienna system was its reaction to the Belgian revolution of 1830, which sought to separate today’s Bel…
Event of 1823 whole source
A tacit accommodation with Britain, the premier naval power, allowed the United States to declare in the Monroe Doctrine of 1823 its entire…
Event of 1885 whole source
As late as the presidential inaugural of 1885, President Grover Cleveland described American foreign policy in terms of detached neutrality…
Event of 1870 whole source
With a few daring strokes between 1862 and 1870, he placed Prussia at the head of a united Germany and Germany in the center of a new system…
Event of 1890 whole source
After Bismarck’s forced departure in 1890 (after a clash with the new Kaiser Wilhelm II over the scope of his authority), his system of over…
Event of 1888 whole source
As late as 1888, a leading British administrator could declare, There is not, and never was an India, or even any country of India possessi…
Event of 1897 whole source
Thus what American and NATO forces met in the early twenty-first century was not radically different from the scene encountered by a young W…
Event of 1900 whole source
“The American flag has not been planted in foreign soil to acquire more territory,” he explained in a remark emblazoned on his reelection po…
Event of 1901 whole source
THEODORE ROOSEVELT: AMERICA AS A WORLD POWER The first President to grapple systematically with the implications of America’s world role wa…
Event of 1905 whole source
In the Treaty of Portsmouth of 1905, it mediated the war between Russia and Japan; in World War II, it defeated Japan’s quest for Asian hege…
Event of 1907 whole source
” Peace would be strengthened, not obstructed, he assessed, by continued demonstrations of American power and a proven willingness to act gl…
Event of 1912 whole source
CHINA AND WORLD ORDER The imperial dynasty collapsed in 1911, and the foundation of a Chinese republic under Sun Yat-sen in 1912 left China…
Event of 1914 whole source
For nearly a month after the assassination of the Austrian Crown Prince in June 1914 by a Serbian nationalist, diplomacy was conducted on th…
Event of 1925 whole source
Its almost pathetic frailty was demonstrated by the Locarno Pact of 1925, in which Germany “accepted” the western frontiers and the demilita…
“We have no selfish ends”: Woodrow Wilson, Message to Congress, April 2, 1917, in U whole source
“We have no selfish ends”: Woodrow Wilson, Message to Congress, April 2, 1917, in U.
Event of 1935 whole source
what if an aggressor: Seeking to crush resistance to Italy’s colonial expansion, Mussolini ordered Italian troops to invade what is today’s…
Johnson, Address to the United Nations General Assembly, December 17, 1963 whole source
Johnson, Address to the United Nations General Assembly, December 17, 1963.
This placed the statesmen of 1919 in a precarious position whole source
This placed the statesmen of 1919 in a precarious position.
Event of 1921 whole source
At the Washington Naval Conference of 1921–22, the United States attempted to forestall an arms race by offering to scrap thirty naval vesse…
Event of 1923 whole source
“the establishment in Palestine”: Arthur James Balfour to Walter Rothschild, November 2, 1917, in Malcolm Yapp, The Making of the Modern Nea…
Event of 1939 whole source
Seeking to deflect the Nazi storm to the west, in 1939 he entered a neutrality pact with Hitler, dividing northern and eastern Europe into S…
Event of 1943 whole source
During the first encounter of the two leaders at Tehran for a summit in 1943, Roosevelt’s conduct was in keeping with his pronouncements.
Event of 1945 whole source
(Hitler, besieged in encircled Berlin in April 1945, waited for an event comparable to the so-called Miracle of the House of Brandenburg and…
After the first successful atomic test in July 1945 in the deserts of New Mexico, J whole source
After the first successful atomic test in July 1945 in the deserts of New Mexico, J.
Event of 1947 whole source
America had helped restart the European economy with the Greek-Turkish aid program of 1947 and the Marshall Plan of 1948.
West Germany joins the Atlantic Alliance whole source
In 1955, he brought West Germany into the Atlantic Alliance.
Event of 2002 whole source
Impelled also by the desire to cushion the emergent unification of Germany, the new European Union established a common currency in 2002 and…
Event of 2004 whole source
Impelled also by the desire to cushion the emergent unification of Germany, the new European Union established a common currency in 2002 and…
Arab resistance to that prospect led to four wars: in 1948, 1956, 1967, and 1973 whole source
Arab resistance to that prospect led to four wars: in 1948, 1956, 1967, and 1973.
Arab resistance to that prospect led to four wars: in 1948, 1956, 1967, and 1973 whole source
Arab resistance to that prospect led to four wars: in 1948, 1956, 1967, and 1973.
Event of 1967 whole source
Convinced that the Soviet Union could supply arms but not diplomatic progress toward recovering the Sinai Peninsula from Israeli occupation…
In 1973–74, this alignment shifted whole source
In 1973–74, this alignment shifted.
Event of 1974 whole source
In 1974, Syria and Israel concluded a disengagement agreement to define and protect the military front lines between the two countries.
Event of 1979 whole source
Sadat’s national-interest-based switch to, in effect, the anti-Soviet orbit inaugurated a period of intense diplomacy that led to two diseng…
North Korean army invades South Korea whole source
In June 1950, the North Korean army invaded South Korea.
Event of 1951 whole source
The Truman administration responded in two ways: In a demonstration of civilian control over the American military, on April 11, 1951, Presi…
Event of 1953 whole source
From 1949 to 1953 he concentrated on building what he called “situations of strength” via NATO; East-West diplomacy would more or less autom…
Egypt and Syria form the United Arab Republic whole source
The short-lived confederation between Egypt and Syria from 1958 to 1961 reflected such an attempt.
The short-lived confederation between Egypt and Syria from 1958 to 1961 reflected such an attempt whole source
The short-lived confederation between Egypt and Syria from 1958 to 1961 reflected such an attempt.
Event of 1962 whole source
During the Soviet ultimatums on Berlin between 1957 and 1962, two American administrations, especially John F.
Event of 1965 whole source
Truman had sent civilian advisors to South Vietnam to resist a guerrilla war in 1951; Eisenhower had added military advisors in 1954; Kenned…
Event of 1969 whole source
In 1969, the Soviet Union seemed on the verge of attacking China to a point that caused Mao to disperse all ministries to the provinces, wit…
Event of 1976 whole source
Although he had been twice purged by Mao, he became the effective ruler two years after Mao’s death in 1976.
Event of 1971 whole source
During my first visit to Beijing, undertaken in 1971 to reestablish contact with China after two decades of hostility, I mentioned that to t…
Event of 1981 whole source
They were the militant doctrine of the Egyptian radicals who assassinated Anwar al-Sadat in 1981, proclaiming the “neglected duty” of jihad…
Event of 2010 whole source
THE ARAB SPRING AND THE SYRIAN CATACLYSM For a fleeting moment, the Arab Spring that began in late 2010 raised hopes that the region’s cont…
Event of 2012 whole source
Mohammed Morsi, a leader of the Muslim Brotherhood backed by a coalition of even more radical fundamentalist groups, was elected in 2012 to…
Event of 1983 whole source
On one level, Reagan’s rhetoric—including his March 1983 speech referring to the Soviet Union as the Evil Empire—might have spelled the end…
Event of 1986 whole source
Applying his vision to the control of nuclear weapons, Reagan, at the Reykjavík summit with Gorbachev in 1986, proposed to eliminate all nuc…
Event of 1992 whole source
” Bush’s term was cut short by electoral defeat in 1992, in some sense because he ran as a foreign policy president while his opponent, Bil…
CHAPTER 5: THE MULTIPLICITY OF ASIA Until the arrival: Philip Bowring, “What Is ‘Asia’ whole source
CHAPTER 5: THE MULTIPLICITY OF ASIA Until the arrival: Philip Bowring, “What Is ‘Asia’?,” Far Eastern Economic Review, February 12, 1987.
Congress, July 26, 1994, online archive of the Yitzhak Rabin Center whole source
Congress, July 26, 1994, online archive of the Yitzhak Rabin Center.
Event of 1990 whole source
Its “near” targets were the Saudi government and its regional partner states; its “far” enemy was the United States, which al-Qaeda reviled…
First World Trade Center bombing whole source
A 1993 attack on the World Trade Center displayed the organization’s global ambitions.
Event of 2003 whole source
The battlefield of that conflict ran through the heart of Saudi Arabia, which eventually—after al-Qaeda mounted a failed attempt to overthro…
Event of 1998 whole source
This dynamic has produced decades of sustained economic growth punctuated by periodic financial crises of seemingly escalating intensity: in…
Event of 2006 whole source
Six UN Security Council resolutions since 2006 have insisted that Iran suspend its nuclear-enrichment program.
Russian cyberattack paralyzes Estonia whole source
The botnet attack from Russia on Estonia in 2007 paralyzed communications for days.
Event of 2013 whole source
This disagreement culminated in 2013 when Saudi Arabia refused a rotating seat on the UN Security Council—explaining that because the tradit…