Events, Verisoph

1945 1945 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story It is clear from the record that many of the scientists working on the A-bomb were acutely aware that they were reaching toward a watershed in the entire history of warfare, weapon... ●●

1945 1945 European rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story For some years after 1945, it seems fair to assume that the American nuclear advantage helped to “balance out” the Russian preponderance in conventional forces. ●●

1945 1945 Diplomatic Agreement rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In turn, this had the effect of tying all three of the western “flank” Powers—the United States, Canada, and Britain—to permanent military obligations on the continent of Europe to... ●●

1945 1945 Military Campaign rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After 1945, Stalin permitted the construction of many more submarines, based upon superior German designs and probably to be employed in an extended coastal-defense role; but he al... ●●

1945 22. MAW. Letter from Josi Warburg, July 22 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 22. MAW. Letter from Josi Warburg, July 22, 1945. ●●

1945 3. MMW. EV, 1, letter from Eric to rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 3. MMW. EV, 1, letter from Eric to Bettina and Nina Warburg, June 13, 1945. ●●

1945 5. MMW. EV, 1, letter from Eric to rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 5. MMW. EV, 1, letter from Eric to Bettina and Nina Warburg, June 13, 1945. ●●

1945 Nuremberg establishes crimes against humanity 0 cit. The Nuremberg trials hold individuals accountable under a new body of international law for crimes against humanity and aggression. They asserted that a global legal order could stand above the sovereignty of states, the ambition of the state, law, and coercion pillar. pillar / politics / war ●●●

1945 Operation Paperclip brings the Nazi rocketeers to America 1 cit. The United States secretly recruits von Braun and hundreds of German scientists, whitewashing their Nazi records, to win the coming missile and space race. The man who bombed London for Hitler would soon build America's path to the Moon. science / war ●●●●

1945 Roosevelt and Truman establish postwar liberal order candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Franklin Roosevelt and Harry Truman extended and reinvented the liberal international project after WWII through institutions like UN and Bretton Woods ●●

1945 “Our social system is such,” he told a Senate committee in 1945, “that any publi rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “Our social system is such,” he told a Senate committee in 1945, “that any public figure [is] punch-drunk with printer’s ink. ●●

1945 COLD WAR SPHERES OF INFLUENCE In the years followi... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story COLD WAR SPHERES OF INFLUENCE In the years following 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union established spheres of influence in Europe. ●●

1945 the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Unite... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By the end of the Second World War in 1945, the United States was so powerful (at one point about 35 percent of the world’s entire economic pr ●●

1945 And added what he took to be a clinching argument: “If we were successful in tim candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story And added what he took to be a clinching argument: “If we were successful in time, we would shorten the war and thus save tens of thousands of American casualties.”1677 The second week in November Du Pont admitted the possibility of regular production by 1945 and accepted the assignment (limiting itself to a profit of one dollar to avoid arms-merchant stigma), but made its skepticism and reluctance clear. ●●

1945 Kurt Diebner of German Army Ordnance counted the full effect on German fission r rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Kurt Diebner of German Army Ordnance counted the full effect on German fission research of the Vemork bombing and the sinking of the Hydro in a postwar interview: When one considers that right up to the end of the war, in 1945, there was virtually no increase in our heavy-water stocks in Germany . ●●

1945 Groves was enthusiastic enough at year’s end to report to George Marshall that h rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Groves was enthusiastic enough at year’s end to report to George Marshall that he expected to have eighteen 5-kilogram plutonium bombs on hand in the second half of 1945.2110 “Looks like a race,” Conant noted for his history file on January 6, 1945, “to see whether a fat man or a thin man will be dropped first and whether the month will be July, August or September.”2111 ●●

1945 17 The Evils of This Time The bombs James Bryant Conant speculated about early rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 17 The Evils of This Time The bombs James Bryant Conant speculated about early in 1945 were crude designs of uncertain yield. ●●

1945 In February 1945 Kistiakowsky chose an explosive called Composition B to serve a candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In February 1945 Kistiakowsky chose an explosive called Composition B to serve as the fast-burning component of Fat Man’s lenses and a mixture he had commissioned from a Navy research laboratory, Baratol, for the slow-burning component.2163 Composition B was poured as a hot slurry of wax, molten TNT and a non-melting crystalline powder, RDX, that was 40 percent more powerful than TNT alone. ●●

1945 Franklin Roosevelt’s Inaugural Address, January 20, 1945, in The Presidents Speak, annotated by Davi rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Franklin Roosevelt’s Inaugural Address, January 20, 1945, in The Presidents Speak, annotated by Davis Newton Lott (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969), p. ●●

1945 Foreign Ministers’ Conferences (1945–46), 437–38, 446 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Foreign Ministers’ Conferences (1945–46), 437–38, 446 ●●

1945 Potsdam Conference (1945), 398, 433–37, 446, 494, 506 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Potsdam Conference (1945), 398, 433–37, 446, 494, 506 ●●

1945 Yalta Conference (1945), 371, 396, 410, 424, 426, 432, 434, 438, 494, 625 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Yalta Conference (1945), 371, 396, 410, 424, 426, 432, 434, 438, 494, 625 ●●

1945 Nagoya firebombing ai_extracted 1 cit. no story From Chapter 17 of The Making of the Atomic Bomb: Nagoya firebombing ●●

1945 Osaka firebombing ai_extracted 1 cit. no story From Chapter 17 of The Making of the Atomic Bomb: Osaka firebombing ●●

1945 “Hiroshima was a city of considerable military importance. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “Hiroshima was a city of considerable military importance. ●●

1945 was 54 percent, an extraordinary density of killing; by contrast, the death rate for the March 9 fir rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story was 54 percent, an extraordinary density of killing; by contrast, the death rate for the March 9 firebombing of Tokyo, 100,000 deaths among 1 million casualties, was only 10 percent. ●●

1945 Oak Ridge had produced enough U235 to allow a nearcritical assembly of pure metal without hydride di candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Oak Ridge had produced enough U235 to allow a nearcritical assembly of pure metal without hydride dilution. ●●

1945 Oak Ridge ships bomb-grade U235 to Los Alamos ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Oak Ridge began shipping bomb-grade U235 to Los Alamos. ●●

1945 he was greatly worried about the use and consequences of the atomic bomb. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story he was greatly worried about the use and consequences of the atomic bomb. ●●

1945 as Curtis LeMay’s bombers shuttled back and forth burning cities, Colonel Elmer E. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story as Curtis LeMay’s bombers shuttled back and forth burning cities, Colonel Elmer E. ●●

1945 that Groves and Oppenheimer at Trinity were preparing their first report of the tower shot’s success rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story that Groves and Oppenheimer at Trinity were preparing their first report of the tower shot’s success. ●●

1945 on one of the targets: Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata and Nagasaki. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story on one of the targets: Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata and Nagasaki. ●●

1945 Szilard petitions against using the atomic bomb ai_extracted 1 cit. no story in replying to Szilard about a petition Szilard was then circulating among Manhattan Project scientists protesting the bomb’s impending use: First of all let me say that I have no hope of clearing my conscience. ●●

1945 and 140,000 altogether across the next five years, a death rate like Hiroshima’s of 54 percent. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story and 140,000 altogether across the next five years, a death rate like Hiroshima’s of 54 percent. ●●

1945 President Harry Truman welcomed the bomb as a substitute for Soviet entry into the Pacific war. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story President Harry Truman welcomed the bomb as a substitute for Soviet entry into the Pacific war. ●●

1945 quoted in Weart and Szilard (1978), p. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story quoted in Weart and Szilard (1978), p. ●●

1945 Hanford plutonium yields reach 90 percent candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Chemical separation yields at Hanford reach 90 percent efficiency ●●

1945 Stimson bars Kyoto from atomic bomb targets ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Henry Stimson overrules military targeting committee to spare Kyoto as cultural and religious center ●●

1945 Joint Chiefs order Operation Olympic invasion of Kyushu ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Joint Chiefs of Staff issue Operation OLYMPIC directive with November 1 target date for invading southernmost Japanese home island ●●

1945 Interim Committee meets with the Scientific Panel ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Full Interim Committee convenes with Nobel laureate scientists to discuss atomic bomb implications ●●

1945 Enola Gay loaded with the Little Boy bomb ai_extracted 1 cit. no story B-29 bomber christened Enola Gay and loaded with world's first combat atomic bomb at Tinian Island ●●

1945 Enola Gay takes off for Hiroshima ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Enola Gay departs Tinian at 0245 hours August 6, 1945, bound for Hiroshima with atomic bomb ●●

1945 General LeMay confirms Hiroshima bombing mission for August 6 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Command officially confirms atomic bomb mission will proceed on August 6, 1945 ●●

1945 Bock's Car departs Tinian for Nagasaki ai_extracted 1 cit. no story B-29 Bock's Car carrying Fat Man atomic bomb departs Tinian at 0347 hours August 9 ●●

1945 1945: Felsenstein’s community-organizing streak and love for elect... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ing streak and love for electronics were instilled as a child in Philadelphia, where he was born in 1945. His father was a locomotive machinist who had become a sporadically employed commercial artist ●●

1945 1945: Wikipedia took the world another step closer to the vision p... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Wikipedia took the world another step closer to the vision propounded by Vannevar Bush in his 1945 essay, “As We May Think,” which predicted, “Wholly new forms of encyclopedias will appear, ready made ●●

1945 1945: ” 168 In his seminal 1945 essay “As We May Think,” Vannevar... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ages, determining who to link to and how, and that human element goes into it.” 168 In his seminal 1945 essay “As We May Think,” Vannevar Bush had set forth the challenge: “The summation of human expe ●●

1945 1945: George Stibitz (1904–95) circa 1945. Konrad Zuse (1910–95) with the Z4 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story George Stibitz (1904–95) circa 1945. Konrad Zuse (1910–95) with the Z4 computer in 19 ●●

1945 1945: Howard Aiken (1900–1973) at Harvard in 1945. John Mauchly (1907–80) ci rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Howard Aiken (1900–1973) at Harvard in 1945. John Mauchly (1907–80) circa 1945. J. Presper E ●●

1945 1945: produced the correct answer, they let out a shout. But it took more th rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story produced the correct answer, they let out a shout. But it took more than another year, until November 1945, for ENIAC to be fully operational. At that ●●

1945 1945: ferreting out glitches as “debugging the machine.” By 1945, thanks lar rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ferreting out glitches as “debugging the machine.” By 1945, thanks largely to Hopper, the Harvard Mark I was the world’s most easily programmable big ●●

1945 1945: f the significance of the new electronic machines.” 20 The same was tr rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story f the significance of the new electronic machines.” 20 The same was true of Hopper when she visited ENIAC in 1945. It seemed to her that the Mark I wa ●●

1945 1945: Over the ensuing years, at patent trials and conferences, in books and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Over the ensuing years, at patent trials and conferences, in books and dueling historical papers, there would be debates over who deserved the most cr ●●

1945 1945: ute the origination of ideas discussed in a group. Upon hearing that, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ute the origination of ideas discussed in a group. Upon hearing that, Eckert is said to have responded, “Really?” 58 The benefits and drawbacks of von ●●

1945 1945: aft of a Report on the EDVAC, by John von Neumann.” Goldstine used a m rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story aft of a Report on the EDVAC, by John von Neumann.” Goldstine used a mimeograph machine to produce twenty-four copies, which he distributed at the end ●●

1945 1945: CHAPTER EIGHT THE PERSONAL COMPUTER “AS WE MAY THINK” The idea of a pe rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story CHAPTER EIGHT THE PERSONAL COMPUTER “AS WE MAY THINK” The idea of a personal computer, one that ordinary individuals could get their hands on and take ●●

1945 1945: ake home, was envisioned in 1945 by Vannevar Bush. After building his rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ake home, was envisioned in 1945 by Vannevar Bush. After building his big analog computer at MIT and helping to create the military-industrial-academi ●●

1945 1945: Felsenstein’s community-organizing streak and love for electronics wer rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Felsenstein’s community-organizing streak and love for electronics were instilled as a child in Philadelphia, where he was born in 1945. His father wa ●●

1945 1945: Wikipedia took the world another step closer to the vision propounded rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Wikipedia took the world another step closer to the vision propounded by Vannevar Bush in his 1945 essay, “As We May Think,” which predicted, “Wholly ●●

1945 1945: k to and how, and that human element goes into it.” 168 In his seminal rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story k to and how, and that human element goes into it.” 168 In his seminal 1945 essay “As We May Think,” Vannevar Bush had set forth the challenge: “The s ●●

1945 Event of 1945 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story tered a contest over the European balance of power. At the edge of defeat, with Russian armies at the gates of Berlin, Frederick was saved by the sudden death of Catherine the Great. The new Czar, a longtime admirer of Frederick, withdrew from the wa ●●

1945 After the first successful atomic test in July 1945 in the deserts of New Mexico, J candidate ai_extracted 2 cit. no story major powers labored to achieve mastery of the atom and with it the ability to release its energy. The American effort, known as the Manhattan Project and drawing on the best minds from the United States, Britain, and the European diaspora, prevailed ●●

1945 Shannon completes classified cryptography report ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ted, “a secrecy system is almost identical with a noisy communication system. ”♦ (He completed his report, “A Mathematical Theory of Cryptography,” in 1945; it was immediately classified. ●●

1945 Von Neumann assembles computer team at Princeton IAS ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In late 1945, at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, Hungarian American mathematician John von Neumann gathered a small group o ●●

1945 Tukey shortly after he joined von Neumann’s project in Novem rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Tukey shortly after he joined von Neumann’s project in November of 1945 ●●

1945 who is extremely grateful for the increase in his salary rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “Professor Earle, who is extremely grateful for the increase in his salary, has been driven by his conscience to raise the uneasy question as to wheth ●●

1945 such a pure and ivory-towerish mathematician would show so m rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “The pure mathematicians claimed that he had become a theoretical physicist; the theoretical physicists looked at him as a great help and advisor in a ●●

1945 y like Fermi of the importance of numerical calculation the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story I just don’t believe any of us could have gone and persuaded somebody like Fermi of the importance of numerical calculation the way von Neumann could. ●●

1945 “I propose to store everything that has to be remembered by rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “I propose to store everything that has to be remembered by the machine, in these memory organs,” he explained to Weaver in an eleven-page letter in e ●●

1945 do not recognize at present because they are farthest remove rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Indeed they are by definition those which we do not recognize at present because they are farthest removed from … our present sphere.”66 Strauss, who ●●

1945 ons of weather data projected on a screen and then compute t rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “I remember in late 1945 or early 1946 reading a rather fantastic proposal of Zworykin’s for the construction of an analogue computer which would scan ●●

1945 “Statistical questions will be amenable to an entirely new k rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “Statistical questions will be amenable to an entirely new kind of treatment,” von Neumann had explained in January of 1945, while the ENIAC was still ●●

1945 John von Neumann to Warren Weaver, November 2, 1945, RF; M rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John von Neumann to Warren Weaver, November 2, 1945, RF; M ●●

1945 11.2 National Center for Atmospheric Research National Def rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Nagasaki, atomic bombing of (August 9, 1945), 4.1, 7.1, 10.1, 11.1, 11.2 National Center for Atmospheric Research National Defense Research Committe ●●

1945 Louis Democrat in 1872 yielded $456,000; and city newspapers were sell... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Louis Democrat in 1872 yielded $456,000; and city newspapers were selling at from $6 to $18 million in the 1920s.8 The cost of machinery alone, of even very small newspapers, has for many decades run ●●

1945 Before looking at the media’s handling of Guatemala, however, let us s... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Before looking at the media’s handling of Guatemala, however, let us step back for a brief review of the crucial period 1945–54 and its sequel to set the stage for an examination of the media’s role i ●●

1945 Event of 1945 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story One of the most battered nations, Japan, grew by two and a half million people between 1940 and 1945 ●●

1945 ge of what Germany was doing, would claim rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ge of what Germany was doing, would claim they only discovered Hitler’s merciless anti-Semitic and political repression, as well as the Reich’s fascist medical programs, after the Allies triumphed in 1945. But in truth, Hitler’s atrocities against Jews and others were chronicled daily on the pages o ●●

1945 .65 Within a month of the publication of rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story .65 Within a month of the publication of “Genocide-A Modern Crime,” the Third Reich fell. Lemkin’s codified principles of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity became pivotal. In August of 1945, the victorious Allies met in London and chartered an international military tribunal to bring ●●

1945 Japan announces acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration ai_extracted 1 cit. no story There were a number of important legal steps leading up to this result, including the August 16, 1945, announcement by the emperor that Japan had accepted the Potsdam Declaration and unconditional surrender, and the Imperial Rescript of January 1, 19 ●●

1945 The Politics of the Prussian Army, 1640–1945 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Politics of the Prussian Army, 1640–1945. ●●

1945 Perhaps most of all, the turn against socio-economic analysis has been motivated by a sense of ennui rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Perhaps most of all, the turn against socio-economic analysis has been motivated by a sense of ennui, the impression that there is simply nothing new to say, that all the major questions were answered by the first two generations of historians and so ●●

1945 This point emerges very clearly from the soul-searching that went on after the war on the part of Dr rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This point emerges very clearly from the soul-searching that went on after the war on the part of Dr Georg von Schnitzler, second in command at IG until 1945.™ In an affidavit he composed in the desperate monthsprior to his trial at Nuremberg, Schnit ●●

1945 CHINA 1945 to 1960s David rejected ai_extracted 4 cit. no story CHINA 1945 to 1960s David Barrett, Dixie Mission: The United States Army Observer Group in Yenan, 1944 (Center for Chinese Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1970), passim; R ●●

1945 And the policies score- card rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story And the policies score- card reads as follows: From 1945 to 2003, the United States attempted to overthrow more than 40 foreign governments, and to crush more than 30 populist-nationalist movements fighting against intolerable regimes ●●

1945 Korea 1945-1953 Was it all rejected ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Korea 1945-1953 Was it all that it appeared to be ●●

1945 The prospect of an escalated rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The prospect of an escalated war led the US 24 China 1945 to 1960s later to have second thoughts and to ask Chiang to abandon the islands, but he then refused ●●

1945 While com-batting the Japanese during rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story While com-batting the Japanese during 1945, the American military took many measures aimed at quashing this resistance army, the Huks (a shortening of Hukbalahap—‘“People’s Army Against Japan” in Tagalog) ●●

1945 ELAS agrees to armistice in Greece ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In mid-January 1945 ELAS agreed to an armistice, one that had much of the appear-ance and the effect of a surrender ●●

1945 Whatever actually lay behind the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Whatever actually lay behind the announcement, it is evident that very little reliance, if any, can be placed upon statements made by the South Korean government con- cerning the start of the war.4 46 Korea 1945-1953 There were, in fact, reports in ●●

1945 This story arose to explain rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This story arose to explain the fact that as many as 30 percent of American POWs had collaborated with the enemy in one way or D2 Korea 1945-1953 another, and “one man in every seven, or more than thirteen per cent, was guilty of serious collaborati ●●

1945 In 1945, former Secretary of rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1945, former Secretary of State Dean Acheson has written, official American policy was explicitly “to bring home to the Germans that they could not escape the suffering they had brought upon themselves .. ●●

1945 For further discussion of the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story For further discussion of the UN’s bias at this time see Jon Halliday, “The United Nations and Korea”, in Frank Baldwin, ed., Without Parallel: The American-Korean Relationship Since 1945 (New York, 1974), pp ●●

1945 Patrick Seale, The Struggle for rejected ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Patrick Seale, The Struggle for Syria: A Study of Post-War Arab Politics, 1945-1958 (London, 1965) pp ●●

1945 US Department of Defense, United rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story US Department of Defense, United States - Vietnam Relations, 1945-67 (the government edition of the Pentagon Papers) book 2, IV, A.5, tab 4, p ●●

1945 Gary school desegregation strike ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Levenda describes the Gary School Strike in fall 1945, where high school students boycotted classes over desegregation plans. He notes his father Leonard Levenda was considered a leader of the boycott. ●●

c. 1945 Project SHAMROCK collects cable traffic 0 cit. Predating and later absorbed by the NSA, Project SHAMROCK obtains copies of international telegrams entering and leaving the United States through arrangements with major telegraph companies. It runs for roughly three decades until exposed and terminated in 1975, revealed by the Church Committee as one of the longest-running warrantless surveillance programs against Americans. politics / technology ●●

19 February 1945 Battle of Iwo Jima 0 cit. U.S. Marines landed on the fortified island of Iwo Jima in one of the bloodiest battles of the Pacific War, needed to secure an airfield for emergency B-29 landings and fighter escorts. The flag-raising on Mount Suribachi, photographed by Joe Rosenthal, became one of the most iconic images of the war. Nearly 7,000 Marines were killed in over a month of fighting against a deeply entrenched Japanese garrison. war ●●●

13 February 1945 Bombing of Dresden 0 cit. British and American bombers firebombed the German city of Dresden over three days, creating a firestorm that killed an estimated 25,000 people, most of them civilians. The raid became one of the most controversial Allied actions of the war because Dresden had limited military-industrial significance and the city was crowded with refugees. It remains a central example cited in debates over the morality of area bombing. war ●●●

1945 Vannevar Bush publishes 'As We May Think' ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Bush's essay imagined the memex, a personal machine for storing and linking information. ●●