Events, Verisoph

1903 British navy converts battleships to fuel oil ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1903, the British navy outfitted some battleships to use fuel oil instead of coal, attracting the notice of the U.S. ●●

1903 Rutherford and Soddy calculate radioactive decay energy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story paper written with Soddy, “Radioactive change,” offered the first informed calculations of the amount of energy released by radioactive decay: It may therefore be stated that the total energy of radiation during the disintegration of one gram of rad ●●

1903 American Breeders Association forms Eugenics Committee ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the American Breeders Association's first annual meeting in St. Louis in December 1903, Charles Davenport succeeded in establishing a formal Eugenics Committee. The ABA voting 499-5, supported expanding eugenics work into legislation and public policy. ●●

1903 Distillers-Securities Corporation formed by consolidation ai_extracted 1 cit. no story These wholesalers and the manufacturing enterprise were consolidated in 1903 into the Distillers-Securities Corporation ●●

1903 Du Pont cousins consolidate family firms ai_extracted 2 cit. no story In 1903 three du Pont cousins consolidated their small enterprise with many other small, single-unit family firms ●●

1903 Corn Products Company formed by merger ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Corn Products Company, formed in 1903, was a merger of two unsuccessful combinations and three independent companies ●●

21 May 1904 Founding of FIFA 0 cit. no story Seven European football associations found the Fédération Internationale de Football Association in Paris to govern international football. It went on to create the World Cup in 1930. culture / diplomacy / society ●●●

January 1904 to 1908 Herero and Nama Wars 0 cit. no story Germany crushes Herero and Nama uprisings and drives survivors into the desert and concentration camps. The campaign is widely regarded as the twentieth century's first genocide. war ●●●

1904 Entente Cordiale between France and Britain (1904) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1904 France and Britain settled their colonial disputes together, France recognizing British Egypt in return for support in Morocco, forming the Entente Cordiale in the face of German power. ●●

1904 Formation of I. G. Farbenindustrie ai_extracted 1 cit. no story I. G. Farben, the German chemical combine, was formed in 1904 from three firms. Quigley says that after its 1926 reorganization it controlled about two-thirds of Germany's chemical output. ●●

1904 Charles Hardinge shapes the Entente Cordiale ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley calls Charles Hardinge one of the most significant figures in British foreign policy. He credits him as the most important single person in forming the 1904 Entente Cordiale. ●●

1904 Milner calls for a 'powerful body of men' outside party politics ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Refusing the presidency of an imperial federalist body, Milner wrote to its secretary Congdon about his distaste for party politics. He called for a powerful body of men devoted at all times to national unity. ●●

1904 First racial science laboratory opens at Cold Spring Harbor, 1904 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto states that in 1904, funded partly by Carnegie and Harriman money, the world's first racial science laboratory opened at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. ●●

1904 Frances Kellor publishes Out of Work, 1904 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto describes Americanization organizer Frances Kellor, whose first muckraking book Out of Work was published in 1904. ●●

1904 Ivan Pavlov wins the Nobel Prize, 1904 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that Ivan Pavlov won the Nobel in 1904 for discovering the conditioned reflex, work that spread behavioral psychology into government and corporate use. ●●

1904 G. Stanley Hall coins 'adolescence,' 1904 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that in 1904 G. Stanley Hall inserted the word 'adolescence' into the American vocabulary, helping launch the science of child development. ●●

1904 Roosevelt wins the 1904 election ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the process, Roosevelt gained enough popular support to win the election of 1904 with 70 percent of the electoral vote. But by 1907, either because he believed he needed... ●●

1904 Morgan bank funds Roosevelt's 1904 reelection ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the 1904 campaign, the Morgan bank gave $ 150,000 toward Roosevelt’s reelection. In return, Pierpont was sternly lectured by TR at a 1907 dinner of the Gridiron Club, the president wagging his fing... ●●

1904 Flexner develops meningitis serum amid NYC epidemic ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Then a sudden opportunity for heroism arose during the winter of 1904–1905, when three thousand New Yorkers died in a cerebrospinal meningitis epidemic. In response, Flexner developed a serum in horses to treat the disease. ●●

1904 Olga Warburg dies by suicide in Berne ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In August 1904, Olga Warburg leaped from a third-story window in Berne, Switzerland, driven to suicide by a loveless marriage and postpartum depression. The tragedy would haunt the family for decades. ●●

1904 Britain joins the Franco-Russian bloc ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Great Britain joined the Franco-Russian bloc with agreements in 1904 and 1907. ●●

1904 Carnegie Institution opens Station for Experimental Evolution ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 19, 1904, the Carnegie Institution formally inaugurated the Station for Experimental Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor, New York, under Charles Davenport's direction. This facility became the headquarters of American eugenics research. ●●

1904 Russo-Japanese War begins ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This amazing story begins with the war between Russia and Japan in 1904 ●●

22 January 1905 to 16 June 1907 Russian Revolution of 1905 wikidata 0 cit. no story wave of mass political and social unrest that spread through vast areas of the Russian Empire ●●●

7 June 1905 Independence of Norway 0 cit. no story Norway's parliament dissolves the union with Sweden, and Norway becomes a fully independent kingdom. politics ●●●

1905 Bloody Sunday at the Winter Palace, 1905 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1905 the priest Gapon led a mass workers' march to the Winter Palace to petition the tsar; troops fired on them and hundreds were shot, helping ignite the 1905 revolution. ●●

1905 Chinese imperial examinations abolished (1905) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1905 the old literary examination system for the civil service and mandarinate was abolished and a Ministry of Education modeled on Japan was established, reforms that weakened rather than strengthened the imperial regime. ●●

1905 Treaty of Portsmouth ends Russo-Japanese War (1905) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By the 1905 Treaty of Portsmouth, Russia renounced influence in Korea and yielded southern Sakhalin and the Liaotung lease to Japan after its land and naval victories. ●●

1905 Schlieffen Plan drawn up (1905) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The German war plan, the Schlieffen Plan, was drawn up in 1905 and modified after 1906 by the younger Moltke, calling for a swift wheeling attack through Belgium to annihilate France. ●●

1905 Milner's farewell speech urges loyalty to imperial unity ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In his farewell speech of March 1905 Milner called on his hearers, especially the Kindergarten, to stay faithful to the idea of imperial unity. Quigley quotes it as the group's guiding creed. ●●

1905 Beit endows a chair of Colonial History at Oxford ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The year before his death Alfred Beit was persuaded to fund a Beit Professorship and Lectureship in Colonial History at Oxford. Quigley says the surplus income served other imperialist purposes. ●●

1905 Morley pushes through the Morley-Minto reforms in India ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John Morley was Secretary of State for India from 1905 to 1910 and put through the Morley-Minto reforms. Quigley says he drew on members of the Milner and All Souls groups to do it. ●●

1905 United States leads world coal production ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto gives 1905 coal-production figures to show the United States produced almost as much coal as the other three school-bound nations combined. He argues coal power underlay the creation of mass schooling. ●●

1905 Corporations employ most American wage earners ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto reports that by 1905 industrial corporations employed 71 percent of all wage earners and mining another 10 percent, as forced-schooling laws gained enforcement power. ●●

1905 Banker Frank Vanderlip praises German schooling to the NEA ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto reports that in 1905 Frank Vanderlip, vice president of the National City Bank of New York, told the NEA convention that Germany's economic success could be summed up in one word: schoolmaster. ●●

1905 The First Moroccan Crisis ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In March 1905 the Kaiser visited Tangiers and backed Moroccan independence, challenging French dominance in North Africa. France's premier Rouvier defused the confrontation and began the talks that led to the Anglo-French entente. ●●

1905 Maji Maji uprising crushed in German Tanganyika ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As many as one hundred thousand Africans died in the German repression of an uprising in Tanganyika in 1905 ; in Southwest Africa, the Herero revolt m... ●●

1905 Russia defeated in the Russo-Japanese War ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Russia defeated in Russo-Japanese War ●●

1905 Braden Copper Company begins mining at El Teniente ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1905 the Braden Copper Company, which would later be absorbed into Kennecott Copper Corporation, began mining at El Teniente, a mountain of ore set (1905) ●●

1905 General Education Board funds higher education ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1905, the GEB extended its purview to higher education with a $10 million gift from Rockefeller, followed by another $32 million in 1907—hailed by the board as “the largest sum ever given by a man in the history of the race for any social or philanthropic purposes.”19 (It would be equivalent to $500 million today.) Much of this last gift was routed to the University of Chicago. ●●

1905 House urges antitrust probe of Standard Oil ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Then, in February 1905, by a unanimous resolution, the House of Representatives urged an antitrust investigation of Standard Oil, a result of the oil boom in Kansas. ●●

1905 Roosevelt denounces 'muckrakers' at Gridiron Club ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As Rockefeller assured Gates, “The owner of the World is also a large owner of property, and I presume that, in common with other newspaper owners who are possessed of wealth, his eyes are beginning to be opened to the fact that he is like Samson, taking the initiative to pull the building down upon his head.”27 By 1905, Rockefeller and his entourage were picking up hints that investigative zeal was ebbing among the editors at McClure’s, where, Starr Murphy reported, “the thing has now gone so far that they themselves are getting disgusted and heartily wish they were out of it.”28 In March 1906, Teddy Roosevelt delivered his famous speech at Washington’s Gridiron Club in which he borrowed a term from Pilgrim’s Progress and denounced the new investigative reporters as muckrakers who kept their eyes fixed on lowly matters instead of occasionally lifting them up to heaven. ●●

1905 Death of Alphonse de Rothschild ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Alphonse de Rothschild, head of the Paris branch and one of the most influential bankers of the nineteenth century, died in 1905, marking the start of generational decline. ●●

1905 Einstein explains the photoelectric effect ai_extracted 1 cit. no story that eventually won for him the Nobel Prize, Einstein connected Planck’s idea of limited, discontinuous energy levels to the problem of the photoelectric effect. ●●

1905 Einstein's doctoral dissertation accepted at Zurich ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Einstein completed his doctoral dissertation titled 'A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions' on April 30 and submitted it to University of Zurich in July. It was accepted after minor revisions, making him Dr. Einstein. ●●

1905 Einstein publishes his Brownian motion paper ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Eleven days after finishing his dissertation (May 1905), Einstein produced a paper on Brownian motion explaining why particles suspended in liquid jiggle, settling the phenomenon that had puzzled scientists for eighty years. ●●

1905 Millikan verifies Einstein's photoelectric effect law ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Robert Millikan performed experiments that verified Einstein's photoelectric effect formulas and law of photoelectric effect. Einstein would later win his only Nobel Prize for discovering this law, though Millikan initially rejected the theory. ●●

1905 Einstein submits special relativity paper ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Einstein submitted his groundbreaking paper 'On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies' to the journal Annalen der Physik on June 30, 1905. The paper introduced special relativity and overturned Newton's concepts of absolute time and space. ●●

1905 Journal of Accountancy begins monthly publication ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1905 the association that had published the proceedings of its meetings began to support the monthly Journal of Accountancy ●●

26 June 1906 Founding of the International Electrotechnical Commission 0 cit. no story Engineers from thirteen countries found the IEC in London, with Lord Kelvin as first president, to standardize electrical technology. It remains the global standards body for electrotechnology. diplomacy / technology ●●

1906 Algeciras Conference resolves First Moroccan Crisis (1906) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When the conference over Morocco met at Algeciras in 1906, Germany found itself supported only by Austria, and the crisis eased as belligerent leaders were removed on both sides. ●●

1906 Liberal landslide of 1906 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The 1906 election was a Liberal triumph, giving that party a plurality of 220 over the Conservatives and a majority of 84 over all other parties. Labour representation jumped from three to forty-three seats. ●●

1906 Curtis organizes 'Closer Union Groups' in South Africa ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1906 Curtis resigned his official posts to organize 'Closer Union Groups' pushing for a federation of South Africa. Quigley presents this as the model later scaled up to the whole Empire. ●●

1906 Milner declares himself an imperialist at Wolverhampton ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Campaigning for Amery in 1906, Milner spoke at Wolverhampton with unorthodox views. He declared himself a deep-dyed imperialist and tariff reformer who believed in universal military training. ●●

1906 Viscount Halifax defends Milner over Chinese labor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When Milner was attacked in 1906 for importing Chinese laborers into South Africa, the second Viscount Halifax rallied to him. He carried a resolution of appreciation for Milner's work in the House of Lords. ●●

1906 Quigley: the Milner Group out of power (1906-1915) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts the Milner Group was out of power from 1906 to 1915 but was content, since a Liberal government under Asquith and Grey pursued the foreign policy the Group wanted. ●●

1906 Rockefeller's General Education Board issues Occasional Letter Number One ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto quotes the 1906 Occasional Letter Number One, the first mission statement of Rockefeller's General Education Board, which spoke of molding a docile, responsive rural folk rather than educating scholars. ●●

1906 Manhattan schools perform tonsillectomies without parental consent ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto recounts that in 1906 immigrant public schools in Manhattan began performing tonsillectomies and adenoidectomies on children without notifying parents. He cites a New York Times report that parents stormed the schools in protest. ●●

1906 Harris publishes 'The Philosophy of Education' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto quotes Harris's 1906 book The Philosophy of Education, in which Harris wrote that 99 of 100 students are automata who follow prescribed custom. Gatto reads this as an endorsement of producing compliant citizens. ●●

1906 Iran's first Majlis convenes ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Iran's new constitutional parliament assembles for its historic first session, representing a landmark moment in the nation's attempt at democracy. ●●

1906 Iran adopts its first constitution ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Iran officially adopts its first constitution, modeled on Belgium's progressive constitution, establishing the framework for democratic governance. ●●

1906 Russian emperor convenes the first Duma ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1906, the Russian emperor convened a parliament-the Duma-of representatives elected unevenly from all regions and peoples of the empire. ●●

1906 Standard Oil of Ohio hires its first Black employee ai_extracted 1 cit. no story It is interesting to note in this context that Standard Oil of Ohio did not hire its first permanent black employee until 1906. At the beginning, the well-heeled GEB grafted its work onto that of the Southern Education Board, the shoestring operation started by Robert Ogden. ●●

1906 Roosevelt signs the Pure Food and Drug Act ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1906, Roosevelt signed a stack of bills to curb industrial abuses. Profiting from the outcry prompted by Upton Sinclair’s novel The Jungle, he signed the meat-inspection bill and the Pure Food and Drug Act. ●●

1906 Algeciras Conference opens ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ch Germany had isolated itself became evident at the opening of the Algeciras Conference in January 1906. ●●

1906 G.R.S. Mead publishes Thrice Greatest Hermes ai_extracted 1 cit. no story G.R.S. Mead, a classical scholar and former secretary to Madame H.P. Blavatsky, published the three-volume Thrice Greatest Hermes, a comprehensive translation of Hermetic literature including the Corpus Hermeticum, two years before The Kybalion appeared. ●●

1906 Lee De Forest invents the triode vacuum tube ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Numerical codes would be granted full control—including the power to modify themselves.1 The age of electronics began in 1906 with Lee De Forest’s in ●●

1906 Lagos Colony merges with Niger Delta Protectorate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story It was based on a merger of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria and the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, the latter itself the product of a merger that had taken place between Lagos Colony and the Niger Delta Protectorate in 1906. ●●

1906 First modern law school opens in Beijing ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Two Japanese scholars, Okada Asataro and Matsuoka Yoshitada, established the first modern law school in Beijing in 1906. ●●

1906 Leopold II founds precursor of the Bakwanga diamond company ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Leopold II formed the mining company at the root of what became Societe Miniere de Bakwanga with the help of two American businessmen, laying the groundwork for one of the Congo's richest diamond concessions. ●●

17 December 1907 Founding of the Kingdom of Bhutan 0 cit. no story Ugyen Wangchuck is crowned as the first hereditary king of Bhutan, unifying the country under the Wangchuck monarchy. politics ●●

26 September 1907 Dominion of New Zealand 0 cit. no story New Zealand becomes a self-governing dominion within the British Empire, a key step toward full independence. politics ●●●

1907 Anglo-Russian Entente divides Persia (1907) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story German naval rivalry and Russia's defeat by Japan made possible the 1907 Anglo-Russian agreement, which divided Persia into Russian, British, and neutral zones of influence. ●●

1907 Quigley: international banking fraternity strengthened the Triple Entente ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that the international banking fraternity, largely excluded from German development but linked to France and Russia, helped create and strengthen the Triple Entente. ●●

1907 The Selborne Federation Dispatch issued ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Curtis's memorandum on closer union, with additions by Kerr and Selborne, was issued as the Selborne Federation Dispatch of 7 January 1907. It was published as an Imperial Blue Book. ●●

1907 Committee of Imperial Defence created (1907) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the 1907 Conference, on Haldane's suggestion, a Committee of Imperial Defence was created and Dominion defense forces were reorganized on common patterns. Quigley says its secretariat became a Milner Group branch. ●●

1907 Quigley: RIIA rooted in the 1907 Closer Union movement ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts the Royal Institute of International Affairs is the Milner Group writ large, a child of the Round Table, which itself grew from the Closer Union movement organized in South Africa in 1907. ●●

1907 Kenneth Freeman's The Schools of Hellas ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites Kenneth Freeman's 1907 study The Schools of Hellas, which concluded there were no schools in ancient Greece in the modern institutional sense. ●●

1907 Bagley's 'Classroom Management' becomes a standard training text ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites William C. Bagley's 1907 book Classroom Management, reprinted thirty times over the next two decades. He argues its big-business metaphors, stressing unquestioned obedience, shaped the pedagogical imagination for the century. ●●

1907 J. P. Morgan and the Panic of 1907 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book asserts, drawing on Quigley, that J. P. Morgan precipitated the Panic of 1907. It argues the panic was used to build public demand for the central bank the Network wanted. ●●

1907 The Panic of 1907 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In October 1907 a failed stock corner set off runs on New York banks and trust companies. With no central bank, the country turned to J. P. Morgan, who marshaled the rescue. ●●

1907 Anglo-Russian Convention signed over Asian routes ai_extracted 1 cit. no story I n 1907, Russia signed a treaty with the British, who were set on controlling the routes to India. ●●

1907 Britain and Russia divide Iran into spheres ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Britain and Russia sign a treaty dividing Iran into spheres of influence, with Britain controlling southern provinces and Russia the north. ●●

1907 Theodore Roosevelt launches the Great White Fleet ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Theodore Roosevelt deployed the Great White Fleet, consisting of sixteen battleships carrying 14,000 troops. The massive naval display on December 16, 1907, demonstrated U.S. military power across the Caribbean and South America. ●●

1907 Maxine Elliott builds first woman-owned Broadway theater ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Maxine Elliott was the first woman to build a Broadway theater, purchasing the needed lot two months after the 1907 panic. Scandalmongers attributed the financing to Morgan. ●●

1907 Morgan rescues Trust Company of America ai_extracted 1 cit. no story During the 1907 panic, Pierpont proved that American finance could aspire to high drama. In an elaborate finale on Saturday night, November 2, he devised a rescue for the still-shaky Trust Company of ... ●●

1907 U.S. Steel acquires Tennessee Coal and Iron ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Steel’s acquisition of Tennessee Coal and Iron during the 1907 panic. This was the deal that Judge Gary and Henry Frick had gotten TR to approve during his breakfast. ●●

1907 Judge Landis rules in the Standard Oil case ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On the morning of August 3, 1907, as more than a thousand people sought entrance to his courtroom, Landis read aloud his decision in the Standard Oil case. ●●

1907 Max Warburg's Bank Day speech on war readiness ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1907, he created a sensation by delivering a Bank Day speech about Germany’s lack of financial preparedness for war. ●●

1907 Einstein publishes the equivalence principle ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In November 1907, Einstein published a fifth section in the Yearbook of Radioactivity and Electronics outlining his new equivalence principle and sketch of ideas for extending relativity to accelerated reference systems. ●●

1908 Young Turk revolt restores the constitution, 1908 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In July 1908 the Young Turk conspirators, having penetrated the army, revolted and forced the sultan to reestablish the Constitution of 1876. ●●

1908 Austria annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina (October 1908) ai_extracted 2 cit. no story While Izvolski sought the Powers' consent for opening the Straits, Aehrenthal suddenly annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina on October 6, 1908, leaving Russia empty-handed and creating a lasting war crisis. ●●

1908 Sorel's Reflections on Violence ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley traces one response to the twentieth-century crisis, an embrace of irrationalism, back to Georges Sorel's 1908 Reflections on Violence. ●●

1908 Round Table Groups organized ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley says the Round Table Groups were organized in 1908-1911 by Lionel Curtis, Philip Kerr, and William Marris on behalf of Lord Milner, to federate the English-speaking world along lines laid down by Cecil Rhodes. ●●

1908 A hidden buyer, Northcliffe, acquires control of The Times ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley recounts that in 1908 a purchaser known only as 'X' gained control of The Times. Esher visited Lord Northcliffe, who was 'X', to secure assurances that the paper's policy would not change. ●●

1908 Publisher Henry Holt calls for central control of industry ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites publisher Henry Holt, who in 1908 said there was 'too much enterprise' and argued that whole industries, including schooling, should be put under central control. ●●

1908 NEA convention questions schooling the masses, 1908 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto quotes a 1908 National Education Association convention admission questioning whether the masses should be schooled the same way as future leaders. ●●

1908 Carnegie trustees ask whether war can alter a people ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book relays researcher Katherine Casey's account that in 1908 Carnegie trustees discussed whether any means more effective than war existed to alter the life of an entire people. It presents this as documentary proof of a war-seeking agenda. ●●

1908 General Motors founded by William Durant ai_extracted 1 cit. no story General Motors was founded in 1908 by William Crapo Durant. He assembled Buick, Oldsmobile, Cadillac, and Pontiac before losing control in 1910, regaining it in 1915, and losing it again in 1920. ●●

1908 Roosevelt backs Taft for president ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Roosevelt decided not to run for reelection in 1908, but he backed William Howard Taft, a man later described by Senator Nelson Aldrich’s great-grandson as a “well-fed... ●●