Events, Verisoph

1368 Founding of the Ming dynasty 1 cit. The rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang drove out the Mongols and founded the Ming dynasty in 1368. Ruling as the Hongwu Emperor, he restored native Chinese rule and rebuilt central government. politics / war ●●●●●

1368 Ming dynasty reunites China and defeats the Mongols ai_extracted 1 cit. no story But China had a habit of changing its conquerors much more than it was changed by them, and when the Ming dynasty emerged in 1368 to reunite the empire and finally defeat the Mongols, much of the old ●●

1370 to 1405 Conquests of Timur 0 cit. no story Timur builds an empire from Delhi to Damascus through campaigns of extraordinary brutality, killing millions. His victories break the Ottoman sultan and the Golden Horde but his empire fragments after his death. war ●●●●

c. 1370 Lamu town, the living Swahili stone town 0 cit. Lamu is the oldest continuously inhabited Swahili settlement, its coral-stone houses, carved doors and waterfront built up from the 14th century onward. Still lived in rather than ruined, it was named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2001. ●●

16 June 1373 Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1373 0 cit. Treaty of perpetual friendship and alliance between England and Portugal. It underpins the oldest alliance still in force between two states. diplomacy / politics ●●●

1375 The Great Ming Treasure Note 0 cit. The Ming dynasty issued the Great Ming Treasure Note as a single national paper currency. Overissue without adequate backing led to steep loss of value over time. economy / politics ●●●

1375 Fall of the Kingdom of Cilicia 0 cit. The Mamluks of Egypt conquer Cilicia and capture its last king, Levon V, ending the final Armenian kingdom of the Middle Ages. With its fall, Armenians are left without a sovereign state of their own. From here on they live as subjects of larger empires until the twentieth century. politics / war ●●

1378 to 1417 Western Schism 0 cit. Rival popes in Rome and Avignon, later joined by a third line, each claim legitimacy and divide Catholic Europe. The Council of Constance ends the schism and strengthens the conciliar movement. politics / religion ●●●

c. 1378 to c. 1484 Christian Rosenkreuz, the legendary founder legendary 0 cit. The manifestos describe Christian Rosenkreuz as a German traveler who gathered esoteric wisdom in the East and founded the Rosicrucian brotherhood. He is a legendary and probably fictional figure, and the reported lifespan and tomb are symbolic rather than historical. culture / religion ●●●

1378 to 1417 Western Schism splits the papacy 0 cit. Rival popes in Rome and Avignon, and later a third claimant, each claimed to be the true head of the Church. The split divided Europe along political lines and damaged papal prestige for decades. politics / religion ●●●●

1378 Williman, ‘Schism within the Church: The Twin Papal Elections of 1378’, JEH, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Williman, ‘Schism within the Church: The Twin Papal Elections of 1378’, JEH, 59 (2008), 29-47 ●●

1378 Christian Rosenkreutz Born rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Levenda cites the Confessio Fraternitatis asserting that Christian Rosenkreutz was born in 1378, making him 106 years old at his death. ●●

1379 McNeill and Battles, Institutes, II, 1379-1403 [Institutes IV rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story McNeill and Battles, Institutes, II, 1379-1403 [Institutes IV ●●

8 September 1380 Battle of Kulikovo 0 cit. Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow led a coalition to victory over a Golden Horde army, the first major Rus win over the Mongols. The battle boosted Moscow's prestige even though Mongol overlordship continued for another century. politics / war ●●●●

1380 Moscow's princes eject the Mongols, 1380 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The princes of Moscow led the successful revolt in 1380 that ejected the Mongol overlords, though tribute and judicial power continued to flow to Moscow. ●●

1380 Muscovy wins the Battle of Kulikovo ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Muscovy achieves battle victory at Kulikovo against Tatar overlord, later magnified in chronicles. ●●

c. 1383 Ottoman Janissary corps organized 0 cit. The Ottoman sultans built the Janissary corps as an elite infantry force recruited through the devshirme system, which conscripted Christian boys from the Balkans, converted them to Islam, and trained them as soldiers personally loyal to the sultan. For centuries the Janissaries were the core of Ottoman military power and among the first standing armies in Europe to use firearms extensively. Over time they gained enormous political influence, repeatedly deposing sultans who threatened their privileges. religion / war ●●●

c. 1383 Ottoman Janissary Corps Founded 0 cit. The Ottoman sultans built the Janissary corps, an infantry force recruited chiefly through the devshirme system, which levied Christian boys from the Balkans, converted them to Islam, and trained them from childhood as soldiers directly loyal to the sultan. The Janissaries gave the Ottoman state a standing professional force independent of the feudal nobility, centuries before most of Europe developed comparable armies. They later became a powerful political faction in their own right, at times deposing sultans. politics / war ●●

1384 John Wyclif dies ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John Wyclif dies, later Church authorities dig up and burn his bones for heresy. ●●

14 August 1385 Union of Krewo 0 cit. Agreement under which Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania married Queen Jadwiga of Poland, converted to Christianity, and joined the two states under one crown. It began four centuries of Polish-Lithuanian union. diplomacy / politics / religion ●●●

c. 1385 First record of Roma slaves in Wallachia 0 cit. The earliest documents that mention Roma in the Romanian principalities already describe them as slaves, including a grant of Roma to the monastery of Tismana confirmed around 1385. From the start, then, the Roma in Wallachia and Moldavia appear in the record as owned property rather than free people. This began roughly five centuries of Roma slavery in the region. economy / society ●●●

1386 Event from 1386 AD rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Historical event from 1386 AD ●●

1387 Lithuania, the last pagan state in Europe, converts 0 cit. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania adopts Christianity, the last pagan state in Europe to do so. Organized European paganism as a public religion survived a full thousand years after Rome fell to the Church. politics / religion ●●●

15 June 1389 Battle of Kosovo 0 cit. Ottoman and Serbian-led armies fight to mutual devastation; Sultan Murad I is killed, but the battle breaks Serbian power and opens the Balkans to Ottoman control. The event became a central myth in later Serbian national identity. politics / war ●●●

c. 1390 The Regius Manuscript 0 cit. The Regius Poem, also called the Halliwell Manuscript, is the oldest known document of the masonic craft, written in verse around 1390. It sets out legendary history and rules of conduct for stonemasons. culture / religion / society ●●●●

c. 1390 Founding of the Kingdom of Kongo 0 cit. The Kingdom of Kongo formed in central Africa through the union of local chiefdoms. It became a centralized state that later engaged directly with Portugal. politics ●●●

c. 1390 So mote it be: the oldest Masonic amen 0 cit. So mote it be means so may it be, using mote, an Old English form of may that was already archaic by the later Middle Ages. It closes the Regius Manuscript, the oldest known Masonic document, dated to about 1390, and it still ends prayers in lodge ritual. The phrase later spread beyond Masonry into modern Wiccan and neo-pagan practice, which borrowed it in the twentieth century. culture / religion ●●

1391 Anti-Jewish riots in Spain force mass conversions 0 cit. Riots that began in Seville spread across the Iberian kingdoms, killing thousands of Jews and destroying whole communities. To survive, tens of thousands accepted baptism. This wave created the large class of conversos, or New Christians, whose sincerity later rulers and the Inquisition would question for generations. politics / religion / society ●●●

1391 Vincent Ferrer and the 1391 massacres in Spain 0 cit. In 1391 a wave of massacres swept Jewish communities across Castile and Aragon, beginning in Seville, killing thousands and forcing many survivors to accept baptism. The Dominican preacher Vincent Ferrer, later canonized as a saint, toured the peninsula urging Jews to convert and is widely blamed for inflaming the violence, though he insisted he sought conversion rather than killing. The pogroms created a large population of conversos. politics / religion / society ●●●

1391 The massacres of 1391 and mass forced conversion 0 cit. Riots that began in Seville, stirred by the preaching of Ferrand Martinez, spread across Castile and Aragon and killed thousands of Jews. To survive, tens of thousands accepted baptism. This wave of forced conversion created a large new class of Christians of Jewish origin, the conversos, and reshaped the whole Sephardic world. religion / society / war ●●●

1392 Founding of the Joseon Dynasty 0 cit. Yi Seong-gye overthrew the Goryeo dynasty and founded Joseon. The dynasty ruled Korea for over five centuries and shaped its Confucian culture. politics ●●●●

1392 Sergius of Radonezh dies ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Sergei dies and pilgrimage cult begins shortly after, establishing reverence for the monk saint. ●●

1395 Especially after Tamerlane razed Sarai in 1395 (chapter candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Especially after Tamerlane razed Sarai in 1395 (chapter 4) , the Moscow Grand Princes began to keep taxes for themselves and to demand tribute from th... ●●

1396 Fall of the Second Bulgarian Empire 0 cit. By 1396 the Ottomans had conquered the remaining Bulgarian lands after taking the capital Tarnovo. The Second Bulgarian Empire ended, and Bulgaria remained under Ottoman rule for centuries. politics / war ●●

25 September 1396 Battle of Nicopolis 0 cit. Sultan Bayezid I destroys a large crusader army drawn from across Latin Christendom. The defeat ends the last major western effort to roll back the Ottoman advance in the Balkans for generations. religion / war ●●

13 July 1397 Kalmar Union 0 cit. Union letter joining the kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden under a single monarch, Eric of Pomerania. The union dominated Scandinavia until Sweden left in 1523. diplomacy / politics ●●●

1397 Founding of the Medici Bank 0 cit. Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici moves his bank's headquarters to Florence, founding the Medici Bank. It becomes the largest and most respected bank in fifteenth-century Europe and bankrolls the family's rise to power. economy ●●●

1397 Giovanni di Bicci founds the Medici Bank 0 cit. Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici founded the Medici Bank in Florence in 1397. It grew into one of the largest and most respected banks in Europe. economy ●●●●

1397 The Medici and the Church's own banking machine 0 cit. Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici founded the Medici Bank, which grew into the most powerful bank in Europe and the main banker to the Papacy itself. Christian bankers dressed interest up as exchange fees and gifts to stay within canon law, and the Church happily used their services. The greatest financial house of the age was Christian and served Rome, a fact the later myth of Jewish financial control simply erases. economy / religion ●●

1399 English courts inherit royal ritual, oaths, and courtroom decorum 4 cit. Court ritual has visible state and royal roots: the Royal Arms, bowing to the bench, judicial and witness oaths, formal dress, standing when the judge enters, and silence while court sits. These practices ritualize public authority and orderly dispute resolution, but the evidence points to monarchy, common law, and courtroom discipline rather than a Masonic origin. culture / politics / society ●●●●●

c. 1400 Cupid endures as the symbol of Valentine's Day 0 cit. The Roman love god Cupid, son of Venus, survives as the winged archer of Valentine's Day cards. His arrows remain a common image for falling in love. culture / society ●●

1400 Revolution (1400) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story C., ed. The Economic Decline of Empires. London, 1970. ______. The Fontana Economic History of Europe, 6 vols. London, 1972-76. ______. Before the Industrial Revolution: European ●●

c. 1400 The planet-gods name our moods 0 cit. Medieval astrology held that the planet-gods shaped character, and their names became words for temperament: jovial from Jupiter (Jove), mercurial from Mercury, martial from Mars, saturnine from Saturn, and venereal from Venus. The old gods still describe our personalities. culture / religion ●●●●

1400 Andrei Rublev icons flourish rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Monk Andrei Rublev becomes greatest exponent of Russian religious art in fresco and icon-painting tradition. ●●

c. 1400 Stonemasons' guild marks use square and compasses 0 cit. Working stonemasons' guilds in medieval Europe use the square and compasses as practical tools of the trade and as marks of the craft. These operative masons' lodges are the direct ancestor of speculative Freemasonry, which later turned the same tools into moral symbols. culture / society ●●

c. 1400 Pentagram used as a Christian symbol of the five wounds 0 cit. In medieval Christian symbolism the pentagram represents the five wounds of Christ and appears in works such as the 14th-century poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, where it is called the 'endless knot' and stands for the five virtues of knighthood. At this stage the symbol carries no occult or diabolical association in mainstream use. culture / religion ●●

c. 1400 Islam reaches Southeast Asia 0 cit. Muslim traders carry Islam along the sea routes to the Malay world, and the port of Malacca becomes a Muslim sultanate and hub for its spread. Conversion comes largely through trade and Sufi teachers rather than conquest. Today Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim country. culture / economy / religion ●●●

c. 1400 The rise of the conversos and crypto-Judaism 0 cit. After the mass conversions, a large population of New Christians lived in Spain and Portugal, some devoutly Catholic and some secretly keeping Jewish practices. Enemies called the secret practitioners Marranos, a slur meaning swine. Historians agree crypto-Judaism was real for some families, while stressing that many conversos were sincere Christians wrongly suspected because of their ancestry. culture / religion / society ●●●

c. 1400 The Kerala school reaches infinite series before Europe 0 cit. Madhava of Sangamagrama and his successors found infinite series for pi, sine, and cosine, results usually credited to Newton and Leibniz centuries later. Whether any of this work traveled to Europe is debated, and most historians treat the discoveries as independent. It stands as a striking case of ideas arriving in one tradition long before another. science ●●

c. 1400 The conversos and crypto-Judaism 0 cit. The conversos, also called New Christians, ranged from sincere converts to families who kept Jewish practice in secret, the crypto-Jews later branded Marranos. Their in-between status bred suspicion from Old Christians and clergy. The claim that many secretly judaized became the pretext for the Inquisition, though how many actually did so is debated by historians. religion / society ●●●

c. 1400 Rival sultanates of Pate, Lamu, and Malindi 0 cit. The northern coast was a patchwork of competing city-states, each with its own ruling house. The island town of Pate, whose story is told in the much-debated Pate Chronicle, contended with Lamu and Malindi for trade and primacy over centuries. The chronicle's early dates and dynastic claims are treated with caution by historians, who read it alongside archaeology. Alliances shifted constantly, and no single town held the coast for long. diplomacy / politics ●

c. 1400 The Sirikwa and their cattle hollows contested 0 cit. Across the western highlands lie thousands of Sirikwa holes, saucer-shaped hollows that were once fortified cattle pens attached to homesteads, in use from roughly the twelfth to the eighteenth centuries. They mark a settled herding society skilled at guarding stock against raiders. Whether the Sirikwa were direct Kalenjin ancestors or a separate people later absorbed is still argued, so their identity stays contested. economy / society ●●

c. 1400 The waungwana patricians and the ocean trade 0 cit. Swahili towns were led by the waungwana, a freeborn patrician class who owned the stone houses and controlled trade. Through them flowed ivory, gold carried from the far interior, mangrove poles, and enslaved people, exchanged for cloth, beads, and porcelain from Arabia, India, and China. Status turned on birth, Islam, and a refined urban way of life. economy / society ●●●

20 July 1402 to 1413 Battle of Ankara and the Ottoman Interregnum 0 cit. Timur (Tamerlane) crushes the Ottoman army and captures Sultan Bayezid I, who dies in captivity. The empire nearly collapses into an eleven-year civil war among Bayezid's sons before Mehmed I reunites it. The near-death of the state shows how fragile the early empire still was. politics / war ●●

1403 McNeill and Battles, Institutes, II, 1379-1403 [Institutes IV rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story McNeill and Battles, Institutes, II, 1379-1403 [Institutes IV ●●

1405 Zheng He's treasure voyages 0 cit. The admiral Zheng He led seven great naval expeditions from 1405, reaching Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and East Africa. The huge treasure fleets projected Ming power and prestige before the voyages were halted. exploration ●●●●●

1405 Death rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Tamerlane set out to conquer China, but died on the way in 1405 . Tamerlane took care to link himself to Chinggis's memory, evoking a difficult and deprived youth, retreats from ne... ●●

1405 Admiral Cheng Ho leads seven overseas voyages ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The most famous of the official overseas expeditions were the seven long-distance cruises undertaken by the admiral Cheng Ho between 1405 and 1433. Consisting on occasions of hundreds of ships and ten ●●

1406 Ptolemy's Geography returns to Europe 0 cit. A Latin translation of Ptolemy's Geography reaches Renaissance Europe, reviving scientific mapmaking and coordinate grids just as the great voyages were about to begin. Ptolemy became the starting point, and the error to be corrected, of the Age of Discovery. exploration / science ●●●

1407 Founding of the Bank of Saint George 0 cit. Genoa creates the Banco di San Giorgio to consolidate the republic's public debt, issuing tradable shares to its creditors. It is often called the world's first modern public bank and operated until 1805. economy ●●●

c. 1410 The Cooke Manuscript 0 cit. The Cooke Manuscript is the second oldest of the Old Charges, dating to about 1410. It later served as a source for the constitutions of organized Freemasonry. culture / religion / society ●●●

1410 1335–1410) stipulates that the insurers agree to assume the risks ‘of God, of the sea, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1335–1410) stipulates that the insurers agree to assume the risks ‘of God, of the sea, of men of war, of fire, of jettison, of detainment by princes, by cities, or by any other person, of reprisals, of arrest, of whatever loss, peril, misfortune, impediment or sinister that might occur, with the exception of packing and customs’ until the insured goods are safely unloaded at their destination. ●●

c. 1410 Datini leaves the archive of a medieval merchant 0 cit. The Tuscan merchant Francesco Datini ran trading and banking offices across Europe and kept meticulous double-entry books, opening each ledger with the motto in the name of God and profit. His counting house left roughly 150,000 letters and hundreds of account books, one of the richest records of how medieval business actually kept its accounts. economy / religion ●

1412 Jan Hus is excommunicated ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Jan Hus is excommunicated by one of three papal claimants and appeals to coming general council. ●●

c. 1413 Medici Bank becomes banker to the Papacy 0 cit. In the 1410s the Medici Bank secured the profitable business of handling the finances of the Papacy. Papal accounts became the foundation of the bank's wealth and influence. economy / religion ●●●

1413 The Disputation of Tortosa presses conversions in Spain 0 cit. The longest of the forced disputations ran for over a year, staged by the antipope Benedict XIII to press Spain's Jews toward baptism after the massacres of 1391. Rabbis were made to defend their faith under duress while preachers worked the frightened communities outside. Thousands converted during and after it, swelling the converso population whose loyalty the Inquisition would later come to doubt. politics / religion / society ●●

1414 to 1418 Council of Constance ends the Western Schism 0 cit. The council deposed the rival claimants and elected Martin V in 1417, restoring a single pope. It also condemned the reformer Jan Hus, who was burned at the stake, and debated the authority of councils over popes. politics / religion ●●●

1414 Hussites restore communion in both kinds ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Hussites begin offering consecrated wine to laity for first time in centuries, restoration of communion in both kinds. ●●

6 July 1415 Jan Hus burned at Constance 1 cit. The Bohemian reformer Jan Hus is condemned for heresy and burned at the stake despite a promise of safe conduct. His death sparks the Hussite movement and foreshadows the Reformation a century later. religion ●●●

1415 Rise of the Portuguese Empire 0 cit. Portugal's capture of Ceuta began an era of maritime expansion along the African coast. It built a trading empire reaching India, Brazil, and East Asia. economy / exploration ●●●●

1415 War (1415) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Paramilitary Politics in Weimar Germany. Bloomington, Ind., 1977. Dietz, F.C. English Public Finance 1485-1641, 2 vols. London, 1964 edn. ______, “The Exchequer in Elizabeth’s R ●●

1415 Economic (1415) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story er, R.A.C., “Great Britain, France and the Ethiopian Crisis 1935-1936,” English Historical Review 89 (1974). Parodi, M. L’économie et la société française de 1945 a 1970. Paris, 1 ●●

1415 1415-1642 (Oxford, 1987), 305-31 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1415-1642 (Oxford, 1987), 305-31 ●●

21 August 1415 Portuguese capture of Ceuta 0 cit. Portugal seized the Muslim port of Ceuta on the North African coast, its first overseas conquest. Historians treat this as the opening act of European overseas expansion. It gave Portugal a foothold for further exploration down the African coast. politics / war ●●

21 August 1415 The capture of Ceuta 0 cit. A Portuguese fleet storms the Muslim port of Ceuta on the North African coast, giving Portugal its first foothold overseas. The prize was a terminus of the Saharan gold and slave trades, and the raid set the crown looking south for a way to reach that wealth by sea. economy / politics / war ●●

1416 Borkluje Mustafa leads Anatolian dervish rebellion ai_extracted 1 cit. no story But this syncretic religious culture was put to a difficult test in 1416 when ecumenical sentiments were expressed by the Anatolian der vish Borkluj e Mustafa during a maj or rebel... ●●

1417 Roma reach Western Europe as claimed pilgrims 0 cit. Chronicles record bands of Roma arriving in the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire in 1417, led by men styled as dukes and counts and carrying letters of safe conduct. They often presented themselves as Christian pilgrims doing penance, a story that won them shelter and alms at first. Within a generation the welcome curdled into suspicion across much of Europe. religion / society ●●●

1419 to 1434 Hussite Wars 0 cit. no story Followers of the executed reformer Jan Hus defeat five crusades sent against Bohemia, pioneering war-wagon tactics and handheld firearms. The wars foreshadow the Reformation a century later. religion / war ●●●

21 May 1420 Treaty of Troyes 0 cit. Treaty making Henry V of England heir and regent of France, disinheriting the Dauphin, and sealing the deal with Henry's marriage to Catherine of Valois. Its collapse fueled the final phase of the Hundred Years' War. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

1420 Forbidden City and the capital at Beijing 0 cit. The Yongle Emperor moved the Ming capital to Beijing and completed the vast palace complex known as the Forbidden City in 1420. It served as the seat of emperors for nearly five centuries. culture / politics ●●●●

1420 Cosimo de' Medici takes over the family bank ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Giovanni di Bicci transferred control of the Medici bank to his son Cosimo, who had already established branches across Europe. ●●

1420 Ming China Of all the civilizations of premodern rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1420, the Ming navy was recorded as possessing 1,350 combat vessels, including 400 large floating fortresses and 250 ships designed for long-range cruising. Such a force eclipsed, but did not inclu ●●

1420 Duby, The Age of the Cathedrals: Art and Society 980-1420 (London, 1981), rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Duby, The Age of the Cathedrals: Art and Society 980-1420 (London, 1981), and see Doig, 169-96 ●●

c. 1420 Prince Henry the Navigator's voyages of exploration 0 cit. Portuguese Prince Henry sponsored decades of voyages down the West African coast, funding better ships and navigation. These expeditions reached the Azores, Madeira, and progressively further along Africa. They laid the technical and commercial groundwork for Portugal's later empire, including the early Atlantic slave trade. economy / science ●●

c. 1420 German cities expel their Jews and drive them east 0 cit. Through the fifteenth century one German-speaking town after another expelled its Jews, among them Vienna in 1421, Cologne in 1424, and many imperial cities. With the old western communities shrinking, Ashkenazi families moved steadily east into Poland and Lithuania, where rulers welcomed them. This migration shifted the center of Ashkenazi life from the Rhine to Eastern Europe. politics / religion / society ●●

c. 1420 Prince Henry the Navigator and the school of navigation 0 cit. Prince Henry sponsors a run of voyages that push Portuguese ships down the West African coast in search of gold, trade, and a route around Islam to the Indies. Later tradition credited him with a formal school of navigation at Sagres; historians now treat that as exaggerated, though the crown's steady backing of exploration was real. His captains also opened the first European sea trade in enslaved Africans. economy / politics / science ●●●

1423 Vittorino da Feltre opens a humanist school 0 cit. The humanist teacher Vittorino da Feltre opened his school Ca' Zoiosa in Mantua in 1423. It taught classical texts, physical training, and character, shaping Renaissance ideas of a well-rounded education. culture / society ●●●

1423 Mount Athos monks choose Ottoman overlordship ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Mount Athos monks prefer Muslim overlordship of sultan to rule by Venetians, given choice in 1423. ●●

c. 1425 Madeira and the first sugar plantations 0 cit. Portugal settles the uninhabited island of Madeira and plants sugar cane, which soon makes it one of Europe's main suppliers. The estates ran on forced labor, including enslaved Africans and captured Guanches from the Canaries. Madeira became the model for the plantation slavery Portugal would carry to Sao Tome and then Brazil. economy / society ●●

1427 The 'Egyptian' misnomer and the word Gypsy 0 cit. When Roma reached Paris in 1427, a witness known as the Bourgeois of Paris recorded their claim to be penitents from a land called Little Egypt. The belief that they came from Egypt spread widely and gave English the word Gypsy, along with the Spanish Gitano. The label was a mistake; their roots lay in India, not Egypt. Gypsy is now widely treated as a slur, and most communities prefer Roma or Romani. culture / society ●●●

1428 Founding of the Aztec Empire 0 cit. The Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan formed the Aztec Empire. It came to dominate central Mexico through conquest and tribute. politics / war ●●●●●

1429 Cosimo de' Medici inherits the bank 0 cit. Cosimo de' Medici took over the family bank on his father's death in 1429. He expanded its branches across Europe and used its wealth to build political power. economy ●●●

1429 Death of Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The founder of the Medici banking dynasty died, leaving his heirs instructions to maintain his standards of financial acumen. ●●

1433 Cosimo de' Medici exiled from Florence 0 cit. Rival families led by the Albizzi had Cosimo de' Medici exiled from Florence in 1433. His absence lasted only about a year before his supporters regained control. politics ●●

1434 Cosimo de' Medici becomes de facto ruler of Florence 0 cit. Cosimo de' Medici returned from exile in 1434 and became the effective ruler of Florence while keeping republican forms. His informal control lasted until his death in 1464. politics ●●●●

1434 Event rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The west African expeditions began in 1434 and reached Cape Verde (in today's Senegal) in 1444. African spices were an early focus, only later overshadowed by the Asian spice trade... ●●

1434 Van Eyck perfects oil painting in the North 0 cit. The Flemish master Jan van Eyck paints the Arnolfini Portrait, showing a command of oil paint that let light, texture, and detail glow as never before. His technique spread across Europe and marked the flowering of a distinct Northern Renaissance in the Low Countries. culture / technology ●●●

c. 1434 Gil Eanes passes Cape Bojador 0 cit. Gil Eanes sails past Cape Bojador on the African coast, a point sailors had long feared as the edge of the known world. Getting beyond it broke a psychological barrier and opened the way for voyages ever further down the coast of Africa. science / technology ●●

c. 1435 Alberti codifies perspective and Renaissance architecture 0 cit. Leon Battista Alberti writes On Painting, setting out the rules of linear perspective that let artists render depth on a flat surface. His treatises on painting and architecture turned Renaissance art into a discipline built on mathematics and the models of antiquity. culture / science ●●