Events, Verisoph

11 September 2001 Passengers fight back on Flight 93 0 cit. United Airlines Flight 93 is hijacked after leaving Newark, but passengers learning of the other attacks by phone storm the cockpit. The plane crashes in a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania at 10:03, killing all 44 aboard. The 9/11 Commission concluded the hijackers' likely target was the US Capitol or the White House. society / war ●●●●

11 September 2001 Nearly 3,000 people killed 0 cit. The attacks kill 2,977 people across New York, the Pentagon, and Shanksville, not counting the 19 hijackers. The dead include office workers, airline passengers, and 441 first responders, most of them New York City firefighters and police who died when the towers fell. It is the deadliest attack on American soil. society / war ●●●●●

11 September 2001 The South Tower collapses 0 cit. At 9:59, 56 minutes after it was hit, the South Tower collapses straight down in about ten seconds. The plane's impact had severed columns and stripped fireproofing, and the fires that followed weakened the remaining steel until the floors above gave way. Its fall killed people still inside and rescuers in the streets below. society / technology ●●●●●

11 September 2001 The North Tower collapses 0 cit. At 10:28, one hour and 42 minutes after Flight 11 hit it, the North Tower collapses. With both towers down, lower Manhattan is buried in a vast cloud of pulverized concrete and debris. The twin 110-story towers, finished in the early 1970s, were gone within two hours of being struck. society / technology ●●●●●

11 September 2001 World Trade Center 7 collapses 0 cit. At 5:20 in the afternoon, the 47-story World Trade Center 7, also called the Salomon Brothers Building, collapses. No plane hit it. Debris from the falling North Tower had struck it and started fires that burned uncontrolled for hours after the water supply to the sprinklers failed. It stood a block north of the twin towers. society / technology ●●●●

2001 WTC 7 draws intense scrutiny 0 cit. World Trade Center 7 was the first tall steel-framed building understood to have collapsed primarily because of fire rather than a direct impact. Because a modern high-rise falling from fire alone had not been seen before, its collapse became the single most studied and disputed event of the day. That novelty is why engineers and skeptics alike focused on it. society / technology ●●●

24 July 2001 Silverstein signs a 99-year lease on the World Trade Center 0 cit. Larry Silverstein's Silverstein Properties takes over a 99-year lease on the World Trade Center from the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. The deal, worth about $3.2 billion, closes just six weeks before the attacks. It is the first time the complex passes to private management. economy ●●●

July 2001 The complex is insured for about $3.5 billion per occurrence 0 cit. As part of the lease, the World Trade Center is insured through a group of companies for roughly $3.5 billion per occurrence. The policies were still being finalized in temporary form when the attacks happened, which left the exact terms open to argument. The phrase per occurrence would become the center of years of litigation. economy ●●●

2001 Richard Werner argues the bubble was engineered by the Bank of Japan 0 cit. In his book "Princes of the Yen," a bestseller in Japan in 2001 and published in English in 2003, economist Richard Werner argued that the Bank of Japan deliberately created the bubble and then the crash. He points to window guidance, an informal system in which the central bank told commercial banks how much and to whom to lend. In his account the bank used this credit control to force a crisis that would push through structural change. This is a heterodox interpretation attributed to Werner, and mainstream economists dispute that the outcome was intended. economy / politics ●●●●

November 2001 Belgian commission admits moral responsibility for Lumumba's death 0 cit. A Belgian parliamentary commission concluded that Belgium bore a moral responsibility in the events that led to Lumumba's murder. The government offered a formal apology. It was a rare official reckoning by a former colonial power with the killing of an independence leader. The finding turned long-standing suspicion into documented state acknowledgment. diplomacy / politics ●●●

12 March 2001 Pokot raiders kill about fifty Marakwet at Murkutwo 0 cit. Before dawn on 12 March 2001 a large group of armed Pokot raiders attacked Murkutwo in Marakwet East in the Kerio Valley. Around fifty people were killed, scores were injured, hundreds of homes were burned and thousands of livestock driven off. The Murkutwo massacre showed how gun-driven raiding had abandoned the older customary limits and became a symbol of the valley's insecurity. society / war ●●

October 2001 Moi nominates Uhuru to Parliament and Cabinet 2 cit. In October 2001 Moi nominated Uhuru to Parliament and soon appointed him Minister for Local Government. The move bypassed the electoral route and made clear that Moi was elevating Kenyatta from party asset to succession prospect. Uhuru now had the name, cabinet rank, and state sponsorship needed for the coming KANU succession fight. politics ●●●●

2001 The Mara Triangle is delegated to Mara Conservancy management 2 cit. The western Mara Triangle remained part of the Maasai Mara National Reserve, but day-to-day management was delegated to the Mara Conservancy through agreement with the local authority. This did not privatize the reserve title. It did create a public-private management model in which security, roads, tourism control and revenue collection could be run by a contracted conservation body. economy / environment / politics ●●●

December 2002 Koizumi pledges an anti-deflation BoJ governor ai_extracted 1 cit. In late December 2002 Prime Minister Koizumi stated that he would appoint as Bank of Japan governor only someone aggressive in fighting deflation. ●●

September 2002 BoJ announces stock purchases; Yanagisawa replaced by Takenaka ai_extracted 1 cit. In September 2002 the Bank of Japan announced it would be prepared to purchase stocks from banks, a move that embarrassed Financial Services Minister Yanagisawa, who was sacked and replaced by Heizo Takenaka, a supporter of the bank's foreclosure plan. ●●●

2002 Surprise recovery in late 2002 ai_extracted 1 cit. Following the Bank of Japan's renewed credit creation of 2001 and the usual time lag, industrial production, consumption, and real GDP staged a recovery by late 2002 that surprised most observers. ●●

1 January 2002 Euro cash introduced; national currencies abolished ai_extracted 1 cit. On January 1, 2002, new euro paper money and coins were introduced across most of Europe as twelve countries, including Germany with its deutsche mark, gave up their national currencies. ●●●●●

2002 ECB orders record shrinkage of Bundesbank credit creation ai_extracted 1 cit. In 2002 the ECB ordered the Bundesbank to shrink its credit creation by record amounts; as money circulating in the economy shrank, demand fell and Germany moved into recession. ●●●

1 July 2002 Founding of the International Criminal Court 0 cit. The Rome Statute of 1998 enters into force, establishing the first permanent international court to try individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

9 July 2002 Founding of the African Union 0 cit. The African Union is launched at a summit in Durban, replacing the Organisation of African Unity with a more ambitious body modeled partly on the European Union, headquartered in Addis Ababa. diplomacy / politics ●●●

7 October 2002 Founding of the Collective Security Treaty Organization 0 cit. Six former Soviet states adopt a charter turning the 1992 Tashkent Collective Security Treaty into a permanent Russia-led military alliance, the CSTO. diplomacy / politics / war ●●

20 May 2002 Independence of Timor-Leste 0 cit. no story Timor-Leste's independence is restored after Indonesian occupation and a UN transition, following the 1999 referendum. politics / war ●●●

2002 Founding of SpaceX 0 cit. Elon Musk founds SpaceX to cut the cost of spaceflight. Its reusable Falcon rockets and Starlink constellation make it the dominant commercial launch provider and the first private company to fly astronauts to orbit. economy / exploration / science / technology ●●●●

June 2002 Collapse of Arthur Andersen 0 cit. Accounting giant Arthur Andersen is convicted of obstruction for shredding Enron audit documents and surrenders its licenses, ending a 89-year-old firm. The Big Five accounting firms become the Big Four. economy ●●●

21 July 2002 Collapse of WorldCom 0 cit. Telecom carrier WorldCom files for bankruptcy after revealing billions in fraudulent accounting, surpassing Enron as the largest U.S. bankruptcy to date. CEO Bernard Ebbers is later jailed for fraud. economy ●●●

25 November 2002 Founding of the Department of Homeland Security 0 cit. After the September 11 attacks, President Bush signs the Homeland Security Act, merging 22 agencies including the Coast Guard, Secret Service, FEMA, and the new TSA into one department. It is the largest government reorganization since 1947. politics / war ●●●●

14 August 2002 Natanz enrichment site exposed 0 cit. An Iranian opposition group reveals a secret uranium enrichment facility at Natanz and a heavy water plant at Arak. The disclosure opens two decades of inspections, sanctions, and negotiation over Iran's program. politics / war ●●●

27 March 2002 Netanya Passover massacre 0 cit. A Hamas suicide bomber attacked a Passover meal at a hotel in Netanya, killing 30 people. The attack prompted Israel's Operation Defensive Shield in the West Bank. politics / war ●●●

23 October 2002 Moscow theatre hostage crisis 0 cit. Chechen militants seized the Dubrovka theatre in Moscow and held hundreds hostage. Around 130 hostages died, most from the gas used by Russian forces during the rescue. politics / war ●●●

12 October 2002 Bali bombings 0 cit. Bombs at nightspots in Kuta, Bali, killed 202 people, many of them foreign tourists. The attack by Jemaah Islamiyah was the deadliest in Indonesian history. economy / religion ●●●●

1 July 2002 International Criminal Court begins operating 0 cit. The International Criminal Court came into being when the Rome Statute entered into force. It was the first permanent court to try individuals for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. politics / society ●●●

1 January 2002 Euro notes and coins enter circulation 0 cit. Euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies such as the mark, franc, and lira in everyday use. Millions of people began handling a shared currency for the first time. economy / society ●●●

6 January 2002 The abuse crisis becomes public 0 cit. Reporting by the Boston Globe revealed that Church leaders had covered up decades of child sexual abuse by clergy. The exposure set off investigations worldwide and a lasting reckoning over Church accountability. politics / religion / society ●●●●

2002 Stiglitz and Globalization and Its Discontents 0 cit. Former World Bank chief economist Joseph Stiglitz published a widely read critique arguing the IMF pushed rigid, one-size-fits-all policies that served creditors over the poor. The book gave academic weight to the case against the Washington Consensus. economy / politics ●●●●

c. March 2002 SpaceX founded 0 cit. Elon Musk founded SpaceX with the goal of cutting launch costs and eventually reaching Mars. The company grew into NASA's main partner for cargo and crew flights. economy / exploration / technology ●●●●

c. September 2002 The Tor anonymity network is released 0 cit. Tor, short for The Onion Router, was released in 2002 to route traffic through relays and hide users' identities. It became a key tool for evading censorship and surveillance, and a nonprofit was formed in 2006 to run it. society / technology ●●●●

2002 National Science Foundation publishes Converging Technologies report ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In June 2002 the National Science Foundation published a 482-page report, Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance, calling for the integration of nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology and cognitive science (NBIC). Wood ties this convergence to transhumanist goals. ●●

2002 Giscard d'Estaing authors the EU Constitution ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Valery Giscard d'Estaing authored the European Union's Constitution in 2002-2003 as President of the Convention on the Future of Europe. Wood highlights his Trilateral Commission membership. ●●

2002 CBS reports USDA-financed spermicidal corn trials ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The book asserts that on October 6, 2002 CBS News reported the USDA had financed field trials including Epicyte's spermicidal corn. It presents this as evidence of a hidden fertility-reduction effort. ●●

2002 Cheney asserts Iraq has WMD ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Vice President Cheney declared there was no doubt Saddam had weapons of mass destruction and was amassing them to use against America. Rumsfeld and other officials echoed the certainty. ●●

2002 Year 2002: Riot outside Mossadegh’s home: Author’s interview rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Riot outside Mossadegh’s home: Author’s interview with Mahmoud Mossadegh, August 19, 2002. Officers arrested and executed: Diba, op. ●●

2002 From 2002 through at least rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story From 2002 through at least 2004, the IWG’s public members and the Historical Advisory Panel (on which I served) repeatedly requested federal agencies to document what they were actually doing under the acts, rather than to simply provide periodic statements that all was well. ●●

2002 Percentage has been calculated from rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Percentage has been calculated from numbers reported in David Holmes (CIA) to Steven Garfinkel (IWG Director) September 20, 2002, “CIA Response to IWG Report Questions, September 2002,” see “CIA Relevancy Guidelines,” pp. ●●

2002 In the 48235 ZIP code, which includes the 5100 block of West Outer Drive, subprime rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the 48235 ZIP code, which includes the 5100 block of West Outer Drive, subprime mortgages accounted for more than half of all loans made between 2002 and 2006. ●●

2002 The International Criminal Court opens 0 cit. The International Criminal Court begins work as a permanent tribunal for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. It is the furthest reach yet of the idea that law can bind rulers across borders, though the great powers keep their distance. diplomacy / pillar / politics ●●

2002 Evergreen begins flights to Afghanistan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Evergreen, the CIA-linked airline, began flights to Afghanistan just a few months after the American invasion in February 2002. ●●

2002 2002: ” 76 Things began to turn around in 2002. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story up spending most of the day in a Kinko’s doing damage control.” 76 Things began to turn around in 2002. He launched Blogger Pro, which users paid for, and with the help of a new partner got a licensin ●●

2002 2002: most of the day in a Kinko’s doing damage control.” 76 Things began to rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story most of the day in a Kinko’s doing damage control.” 76 Things began to turn around in 2002. He launched Blogger Pro, which users paid for, an ●●

2002 Event of 2002 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story a, Europe, in order to participate in it, felt obliged to set aside the political mechanisms through which it had conducted its affairs for three and a half centuries. Impelled also by the desire to cushion the emergent unification of Germany, the ne ●●

2002 Information history in 2002 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story the second edition in 1989 listed nineteen alternative spellings. ●●

2002 nd of claims they were making to the public, coming as it did from the Newspaper of Record. Thus, wh rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story nd of claims they were making to the public, coming as it did from the Newspaper of Record. Thus, when the escalated war propaganda campaign began in September 2002,20 the New York Times soon ran a long front-page article by Judith Miller and Michael ●●

2002 making, which turned out (and were quickly recognized by many in the intelligence community) to be rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story making, which turned out (and were quickly recognized by many in the intelligence community) to be unusable for that purpose. On that very same day, September 8, 2002, Dick Cheney, appearing on NBC – TV’s Meet the Press, cited this Times article at ●●

2002 Bush names Iran in axis of evil speech ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ives are obscured by the demonization process and the necessity of contesting “evil” and its associated threats. Iran was named by George Bush in his January 2002 State of the Union message as one of the three charter members of the “axis of evil” (a ●●

2002 Contents Cover Title Copyright Dedication By the Same Authors Ta... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Contents Cover Title Copyright Dedication By the Same Authors Tables Introduction to the 2002 Edition Preface 1 A Propaganda Model 2 Worthy and Unworthy Victims 3 Legitimizing versus Meanin ●●

2002 Introduction to the 2002 Edition This book centers in what we call a ... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Introduction to the 2002 Edition This book centers in what we call a “Propaganda model,” an analytical framework that attempts to explain the performance of the U.S. ●●

2002 Hal Varian joins Google as chief economist ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Hal Varian joined Google as its chief economist, noting that every user action is a signal analyzed and fed back into the system. ●●

2002 Poindexter proposes Total Information Awareness ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Admiral John Poindexter proposed the Total Information Awareness program with a vision matching behavioral surplus capture concepts. ●●

2002 izing those destined to become ill. In one rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story izing those destined to become ill. In one scenario, the monograph stated, “The ultimate character of the market depends on the relative number of these ‘genetically blessed’ individuals.”15 A Spring 2002 American Academy of Actuaries briefing paper entitled “The Use Of Genetic Information In Disabi ●●

2002 Winston-Salem Journal exposes eugenic sterilization ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ept of mercy killing to medical patients, starting with the vegetative. Discussions about euthanasia commonly focused first on the most obvious medical candidates at the rim of the slippery slope. In 2002, the Winston-Salem Journal published a riveting newspaper series exposing the deep veins of eug ●●

2002 Miguel Angel Centeno, Blood and Debt: War and the Nation-State in Latin America (University Park: Pe rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Miguel Angel Centeno, Blood and Debt: War and the Nation-State in Latin America (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002), pp. ●●

2002 3 (2002): 226– 231; “Proceedings of the First International Conference on Voluntary Steriliza- ti... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 3 (2002): 226– 231; “Proceedings of the First International Conference on Voluntary Steriliza- tion,” April 16, 1964, National Institute of Health and Family Welfare, Documen- tation Centre, New De... ●●

2002 The Chinese constitution specifies that senior leaders will serve maximum terms of ten years, and si rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Chinese constitution specifies that senior leaders will serve maximum terms of ten years, and since Deng Xiaoping’s retirement there have already been two ten-year cycles of leadership replacement at the 16th and 18th Party Congresses in 2002 and ●●

2002 US agreement to allow the UN weapons inspectors rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story US agreement to allow the UN weapons inspectors to return to Irag in December 2002 had been no more than a bluff to cate ●●

c. 2002 CIA rendition and black site program expands after 9/11 0 cit. Following the September 11 attacks, the CIA establishes a network of secret overseas detention facilities, or black sites, and expands a program of rendering terrorism suspects to third countries. Detainees at these sites were subjected to interrogation methods including waterboarding, sleep deprivation, and stress positions, later documented in the 2014 Senate Intelligence Committee report. politics / war ●●●

February 2002 PayPal goes public 0 cit. PayPal held its initial public offering, becoming the first internet company to go public in eighteen months at the time. The IPO valued the company at roughly 1.2 billion dollars and gave its founders and early employees significant paper wealth ahead of the eBay sale. economy / technology ●●

3 October 2002 eBay acquires PayPal 0 cit. eBay completed its acquisition of PayPal in a stock-for-stock deal valued at approximately 1.5 billion dollars. The sale made PayPal's founders and early employees wealthy and freed them to pursue new ventures, scattering the group across Silicon Valley. economy / technology ●●●

2002 Thiel founds Clarium Capital 0 cit. Peter Thiel founded Clarium Capital Management, a global macro hedge fund that made bets based on his predictions about geopolitical and economic trends. Clarium became one of Thiel's early post-PayPal ventures alongside his angel investing. economy ●

December 2002 LinkedIn founded 0 cit. Reid Hoffman, a PayPal board member and former executive vice president, co-founded LinkedIn with several colleagues from his earlier company SocialNet. The professional networking site launched publicly in May 2003 and became one of the PayPal network's biggest successes. economy / technology ●●

c. January 2002 Litvinenko publishes claims of FSB involvement in the bombings 0 cit. Former FSB officer Alexander Litvinenko, together with historian Yuri Felshtinsky, published 'Blowing Up Russia', alleging that the FSB had orchestrated the 1999 apartment bombings to justify the Second Chechen War and Putin's rise. The Russian government has consistently denied the allegation, and it remains a contested claim rather than an established fact. politics ●●

22 September 2002 France launches Operation Licorne in Ivory Coast 0 cit. France deployed troops under Operation Licorne after a rebellion split Ivory Coast, formally to protect French and other foreign nationals but effectively taking a central role separating combatants for nearly a decade. Ivory Coast, a former French colony still using the CFA franc and hosting French economic interests including major agribusiness and infrastructure investments, became one of the clearest 21st-century cases of continued French military involvement in a former colony's internal conflict. diplomacy / war ●●

c. 2002 Operation Tiberius report compiled 0 cit. The Metropolitan Police compiles an internal intelligence review, later known as Operation Tiberius, scoping corruption linked to organized crime within the force. The report, kept confidential for over a decade, links 28 organized crime networks to corrupt officers and states that some criminal groups used Masonic lodge connections to identify and recruit corrupt officers, including cases where lodge members allegedly warned each other which detectives were under suspicion. politics ●●

c. March 2002 First Donnygate Convictions 0 cit. The Donnygate investigation produced its most significant convictions: former council planning chief Peter Birks was jailed for four years and developer Alan Hughes for five years for corruption over a planning application, while Hughes's financial adviser Gordon Armitage received a one-year sentence for aiding and abetting. Former council deputy leader and mayor Raymond Stockhill received a suspended sentence due to ill health. In total 23 Labour councillors were convicted over the course of the investigation, mostly for expenses fraud rather than planning corruption. politics ●●●

2 May 2002 Virginia Governor Issues Statement of Regret 0 cit. On the 75th anniversary of the Buck v. Bell decision, Virginia Governor Mark Warner issued a statement expressing "profound regret" for the state's eugenic sterilization program, which had sterilized more than 7,300 people. Virginia's action was among the first formal state acknowledgments of the harm caused by twentieth-century sterilization laws. politics / society ●●

13 December 2002 North Carolina Governor Apologizes for Eugenics Program 0 cit. Governor Mike Easley issued a formal apology on behalf of North Carolina for the state's eugenics program, which had sterilized more than 7,600 people between 1929 and 1974. The apology did not include compensation, which would not come for another decade. politics / society ●●

2 December 2002 Oregon Governor Apologizes for Sterilization Program 0 cit. Governor John Kitzhaber issued a formal apology for Oregon's eugenic sterilization program, which had operated under a state Board of Eugenics from 1917 into the 1980s, one of the longest-running such programs in the country. politics / society ●●

24 September 2002 Iraq weapons dossier published 0 cit. The government published a dossier on Iraq's weapons capabilities, drawing on assessments from the Joint Intelligence Committee, which included a widely publicised claim that Iraq could deploy chemical or biological weapons within 45 minutes of an order to do so. The dossier was used to support the case for the 2003 invasion of Iraq. No such weapons were found after the invasion, and the dossier's sourcing and drafting later became the subject of official inquiries. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

27 November 2002 9/11 Commission established 0 cit. Congress and President George W Bush established the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, known as the 9/11 Commission, to investigate the circumstances surrounding the attacks of 11 September 2001. Chaired by former New Jersey Governor Thomas Kean, it examined intelligence failures, aviation security, and the government's emergency response. It held public hearings that included testimony from senior national security officials. politics / war ●●

2002 Angola's oil funds a war and an opaque elite 0 cit. As Angola's long civil war ended in 2002, the government financed itself with offshore oil through the state company Sonangol, while the UNITA rebels had run on diamonds. The International Monetary Fund and campaigners reported large gaps between oil income and the public accounts, with billions unexplained. Angola became a case where oil wealth flowed to a narrow elite and foreign partners while much of the population stayed poor. economy / politics / war ●●

2002 Transparency campaigns take on the resource curse 0 cit. At a global summit British Prime Minister Tony Blair backed the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, launched soon after, which asks governments and companies to publish what they pay and receive for oil, gas, and minerals. Alongside the Publish What You Pay campaign, the idea was that openness could stop rents from vanishing into private hands. Supporters call it a real check, while skeptics say disclosure alone does not fix the politics that let elites capture the money. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●

July 2002 The Pretoria and Luanda accords 0 cit. In July 2002 Congo and Rwanda signed a deal at Pretoria under which Rwanda would pull out its troops in return for the disarming of the ex-FAR and Interahamwe on Congolese soil. A parallel Luanda agreement in September arranged Uganda's withdrawal. The foreign armies began leaving, though their proxy militias and economic interests remained. diplomacy / politics ●●

2002 Arthur Andersen falls with its client 0 cit. Arthur Andersen, one of the Big Five audit firms, was convicted of obstruction of justice for shredding Enron documents and surrendered its licenses, destroying a firm of 85,000 people. The Supreme Court later overturned the conviction, but too late to save it. The collapse showed the danger when the auditor earns large consulting fees from the client it is meant to police. economy / politics ●●●

2002 WorldCom books expenses as investment 0 cit. The telecom giant WorldCom inflated profits by roughly eleven billion dollars, mainly by recording ordinary operating costs as capital investment so they would not hit the current year's earnings. It was one of the largest accounting frauds in history and pushed the biggest bankruptcy the country had seen, deepening the crisis of trust that followed Enron. economy / politics ●●

2002 Sarbanes-Oxley tries to restore trust in the numbers 0 cit. After Enron and WorldCom, Congress passed the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, forcing chief executives to personally certify their accounts, tightening rules on internal controls, and creating a public board to oversee auditors and limit the consulting they sell to audit clients. Supporters say it made fraud harder, critics that it loaded heavy compliance costs onto business without ending creative accounting. economy / politics ●●

December 2002 Kibaki ends KANU rule 3 cit. Mwai Kibaki, leading a broad opposition coalition, won the 2002 election in a landslide, ending nearly forty years of unbroken KANU rule and Moi's presidency. The peaceful handover raised high hopes, and early moves such as free primary education and anti-corruption promises were popular. But graft scandals and unfinished constitutional reform soon tempered the optimism. politics ●●

2002 DARPA's Total Information Awareness sparks a backlash 0 cit. DARPA created a program under Admiral John Poindexter to scan databases of Americans' records for signs of terrorism, sold with an all-seeing-eye logo. Public alarm over the mass-surveillance plan led Congress to cut its funding in 2003, though reporting later showed parts of the work continued elsewhere in secret. politics / society / technology ●●

2002 Total Information Awareness 0 cit. A Pentagon research office led by John Poindexter proposed Total Information Awareness, a plan to mine vast pools of data to spot terrorists before they struck. Its all-seeing-eye logo and open aim of pulling together financial, travel, and communication records caused a public backlash. Congress cut its funding in 2003, though similar ideas resurfaced elsewhere. politics / technology / war ●●

July 2002 The African Union replaces the OAU 0 cit. The Organisation of African Unity was formally succeeded by the African Union, launched at a summit in Durban. The new body promised closer economic and political integration, echoing the old Pan-African goal of continental unity. Supporters see it as a step toward that vision, while critics note that a united Africa on the scale Nkrumah imagined remains unrealized. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●

2002 MoD settles unexploded ordnance claims from herders 0 cit. Britain's Ministry of Defence agreed to pay compensation to Maasai and Samburu herders killed or maimed by unexploded munitions left on training ranges used by British troops. The settlement, in a case brought by the law firm Leigh Day, covered hundreds of claimants. It documented that live-fire training near local communities had caused deaths and injuries over many years. society / war ●●

27 December 2002 KANU loses power and Moi steps down 0 cit. In the December 2002 election a united opposition under Mwai Kibaki and the NARC coalition beat KANU's candidate, ending the party's four decades in power. Moi accepted the result and left office peacefully after 24 years. It was Kenya's first transfer of power to the opposition through the ballot. politics ●●●

22 March 2002 The Bergier Commission delivers its final report 0 cit. An independent commission of historians appointed by the Swiss government in 1996 published its findings on the country's conduct in the Second World War. The report documented the trade with Germany, the purchase of looted gold, and a refugee policy that it concluded had turned away people the authorities knew were in mortal danger. It confirmed as a matter of record much of the dark side of wartime neutrality, while leaving the moral verdict for the public to weigh. politics / society ●●●

2002 Frederick Cooper names the 'gatekeeper state' 0 cit. Historian Frederick Cooper describes the colonial state as a 'gatekeeper' that controlled the border between the domestic economy and the outside world but had little reach or capacity inside its own territory. He argues African rulers inherited this thin, revenue-guarding state at independence. Cooper offers this as an interpretive frame for why postcolonial states struggle to govern in depth. economy / politics ●●

29 January 2002 Bush names Iraq part of an 'axis of evil' 0 cit. In his State of the Union address, President Bush groups Iraq with Iran and North Korea as an "axis of evil" that threatened world peace. The speech marked a public turn toward confronting Iraq. It echoed the regime-change aim PNAC had urged since 1998. diplomacy / politics ●●●

1 June 2002 The Bush Doctrine of preemption 0 cit. In a commencement speech at West Point, President Bush lays out a policy of striking threats before they fully form, rather than waiting to be attacked. The idea became known as the Bush Doctrine of preemption. It matched the forward, assertive posture PNAC had long argued for. politics / war ●●●

17 September 2002 The 2002 National Security Strategy formalizes preemption 0 cit. The Bush administration publishes its National Security Strategy, which puts preemptive action against emerging threats at the center of American policy. It also stated a goal of keeping the United States militarily unmatched. The document turned themes PNAC had promoted into official government strategy. politics / war ●●●●

c. 2002 One occurrence or two: the insurance battle 0 cit. Silverstein argued the two plane strikes into two towers were two separate occurrences, which would double the payout toward about $7 billion. The insurers argued it was a single coordinated event, so a single payout. The dispute turned on which insurers' policy wording applied, and it ran through several trials and appeals. economy ●●●

May 2002 FEMA's building performance study 0 cit. The Federal Emergency Management Agency, working with the American Society of Civil Engineers, publishes the first technical study of why the buildings fell. It attributes the tower collapses to the impacts combined with the fires and calls for a deeper investigation. Its findings on WTC 7 were preliminary and led directly to a fuller federal inquiry. politics / technology ●●●

November 2002 The 9/11 Commission is created 0 cit. Congress and President George W. Bush establish the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, known as the 9/11 Commission. The bipartisan panel is charged with tracing how the attacks were planned and why they were not stopped. It holds public hearings and reviews classified intelligence. politics ●●●

September 2002 The "pull it" remark contested 0 cit. In the 2002 PBS documentary America Rebuilds, Larry Silverstein said of WTC 7, "I said, you know, we've had such terrible loss of life, maybe the smartest thing to do is pull it." The Truth movement reads "pull it" as an order to demolish the building. Silverstein's spokesman said he meant withdrawing the firefighting effort, and demolition experts and NIST note that a 47-story building cannot be wired for demolition in a matter of hours. society ●●●

17 September 2002 The 2002 US security strategy names failing states as a threat 0 cit. The US National Security Strategy of 2002 stated that America was threatened less by conquering states than by failing ones. Written after the September 11 attacks, it argued that weak states like Afghanistan could shelter terrorist networks and endanger other countries. This framing put weak and failing states at the center of security policy and shaped the demand for tools that could rank them. politics / war ●●●

5 February 2002 Belgium apologizes for its role in Lumumba’s death 0 cit. After the 2001 parliamentary inquiry, the Belgian government formally apologized in February 2002 for its part in the events that led to Lumumba’s murder. ●●