Events, Verisoph

1657 Bramhall publishes Castigations of Hobbes ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John Bramhall publishes his critical response to Hobbes on liberty and necessity. ●●

1657 Quakers arrive in Massachusetts ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quakers arrive in Massachusetts determined to spread message of freedom and inner light, raising fears. ●●

1658 Dutch conquest of Ceylon 0 cit. The VOC completed its takeover of Portuguese held coastal Ceylon, gaining control of the cinnamon trade. The company governed the island's coasts and its lucrative spice exports for over a century. economy / war ●●

1658 Revolution (1658) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story nalization of the French Army under the Ancien Régime,” in M. Duffy (ed.). The Military Revolution and the State 1500–1800 (Exeter Studies in History, no. 1, Exeter, 1980), pp. 29– ●●

1658 Slavery introduced at the Cape 0 cit. The Dutch East India Company brought the first enslaved people to the Cape, initially from West Africa and soon after primarily from Madagascar, Mozambique, India, and the Indonesian archipelago. Slave labor became central to the colony's farms, households, and the port at Cape Town. Slavery at the Cape lasted for nearly two centuries, shaping the region's demographics and social structure, including the emergence of Cape Malay and Cape Coloured communities. economy / society ●●●

c. 1658 The Dutch conquest of coastal Ceylon 0 cit. Allied at first with the kingdom of Kandy, the VOC drives the Portuguese from the coast of Ceylon and takes over the cinnamon trade. The company then holds the coast for itself, running a forced-labor system to harvest cinnamon for the European market. economy / war ●●

7 November 1659 Treaty of the Pyrenees 0 cit. Peace between France and Spain ending their long war, ceding Roussillon and Artois to France and arranging the marriage of Louis XIV to the Spanish infanta. It marked the shift of European primacy from Spain to France. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

1659 2The Habsburg Bid for Mastery, 1519–1659 By the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 2The Habsburg Bid for Mastery, 1519–1659 By the sixteenth century, then, the power struggles within Europe were also helping it to rise, economically and militarily, above the other regions of the glo ●●

1659 Contents Cover Title Page Copyright Dedication Acknowledgmen rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Habsburg Bid for Mastery, 1519–1659 The Meaning and Chronology of the Struggle Strengths and Weaknesses of the Habsburg Bloc International Comparisons War, Money, and the Nation-State Chapter 3. F ●●

c. 1659 Fractional-reserve banking lets banks create money 0 cit. Goldsmith-bankers discover they can lend out far more paper notes than the gold they hold, since not all depositors withdraw at once. Fractional-reserve banking is the hidden engine of the money and finance pillar: banks create most of the money supply as debt, out of almost nothing. economy / pillar ●●●●

1659 Khoikhoi-Dutch Wars over land and cattle 0 cit. The first of several armed conflicts broke out between Khoikhoi groups and the Dutch settlers over grazing land and cattle theft, as the VOC settlement expanded beyond its original station. A second Khoikhoi-Dutch War followed in the 1670s. Khoikhoi resistance was ultimately unable to stop colonial expansion, and smallpox epidemics in the following century further devastated their population. war ●●

1660 Then, in a remarkable rush of intellectual innovation, beginning in around 1660, that theoretical... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Then, in a remarkable rush of intellectual innovation, beginning in around 1660, that theoretical basis was created. ●●

1660 Tables & Charts TABLES 1 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Increase in Military Manpower, 1470–1660 2. British Wartime Expenditure and Revenue, 1688–1815 3. Populations of the Powers, 1700–1800 4. ●●

1660 Introduction This is a book about national and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Great Power struggles which took place between 1660 and 1815, and are covered in Chapter 3, cannot be so easily summarized as a contest between one large bloc and its many rivals. It was in this c ●●

1660 Contents Cover Title Page Copyright Dedication Acknowledgmen rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Finance, Geography, and the Winning of Wars, 1660–1815 The “Financial Revolution” Geopolitics The Winning of Wars, 1660–1763 The Winning of Wars, 1763–1815 STRATEGY AND ECONOMICS IN THE INDUSTRIAL ERA ●●

1660 3Finance, Geography, and the Winning of Wars, 1660–1815 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 3Finance, Geography, and the Winning of Wars, 1660–1815 The signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees did not, of course, bring to an end the rivalries of the European Great Powers, or their habit of sett ●●

1660 The Winning of Wars, 1660–1763 When Louis XIV rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Winning of Wars, 1660–1763 When Louis XIV took over full direction of the French government in March 1661, the European scene was particularly favorable to a monarch determined to impose his views ●●

1660 Economic (1660) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story eu and Olivares, ch. 6. CHAPTER THREEFinance, Geography, and the Winning of Wars, 1660–1815 1. For basic political narratives of this period, see D. McKay and H. M. Scott, The Ri ●●

1660 Naval (1660) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story __, “American Atomic Strategy and the Hydrogen Bomb Decision,” Journal of American History 66 (1979). ______, “The Origins of Overkill: Nuclear Weapons and American Strategy, 1945 ●●

1660 Revolution (1660) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 4 (1972). Schulin, E., ed. Gedenkschrift Martin Göhring: Studien zur europäischen Geschichte. Wiesbaden, 1968. Schulte, B.F. Die deutsche Armee. Düsseldorf, 1977. Schulzinger, R ●●

1660 1660: Sending around papers for comments is one reason why the Roy... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ng. Sending around papers for comments is one reason why the Royal Society was created in London in 1660 and why Benjamin Franklin founded the American Philosophical Society. At Time magazine, we had ●●

1660 1660: s on many of the chapters. This isn’t a new thing. Sending around pape rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story s on many of the chapters. This isn’t a new thing. Sending around papers for comments is one reason why the Royal Society was created in London in 166 ●●

1660 The Great Elector established one by refusing to disband his army after the Peace of Oliva that ende candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Great Elector established one by refusing to disband his army after the Peace of Oliva that ended the Swedish-Polish War in 1660 in which Prussia had participated. ●●

1660 17: A House Divided (1517-1660) 1 Scholarly argument (and, for what it rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 17: A House Divided (1517-1660) 1 Scholarly argument (and, for what it is worth, my own opinion) sways on the fascinating but ultimately trivial question of whether the theses were actually nailed up on the door; Philipp Melanchthon asserted in 1546 ●●

1660 György II Rákóczi dies of battle wounds ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Prince György II Rákóczi dies from battle wounds after failed campaigns, leading to principality's ruin. ●●

1660 Founding of the Royal Society 0 cit. The Royal Society was formally founded in London, growing out of the earlier informal gatherings of natural philosophers, and received a royal charter in 1662. It became one of the world's oldest and most important scientific institutions, and its documented history is entirely separate from any Rosicrucian conspiracy claims sometimes attached to it. science ●●

c. 1660 The Sephardic role in Atlantic finance, in proportion 0 cit. Sephardic families in Amsterdam took part in the sugar and tobacco trades, colonial shipping, and the early Amsterdam stock exchange, where Joseph de la Vega wrote the first book on the market. Their networks mattered, yet they were a minority working alongside far larger Dutch, English, and Portuguese Christian interests. Documented economic history shows participation and skill, not the domination that later myths claim. economy / society ●●

1661 Acquisition of Bombay 0 cit. Bombay passed to the English Crown as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza and was leased to the East India Company. It grew into a principal port and commercial hub of British India. economy / politics ●●●

1661 Reign of the Kangxi Emperor 0 cit. The Kangxi Emperor ruled from 1661 to 1722, one of the longest reigns in Chinese history. He consolidated Qing power, expanded the empire, and patronized scholarship. politics ●●●●●

1661 Stockholms Banco issues Europe's first banknotes 0 cit. Stockholms Banco, led by Johan Palmstruch, issued the first banknotes in Europe as receipts that could circulate in place of heavy copper coins. The bank later collapsed after printing too many notes. economy / technology ●●●●

c. 1661 Louis XIV and absolute monarchy in France 0 cit. Louis XIV ruled France as an absolute monarch, concentrating power in the crown and sidelining the nobility from his palace at Versailles. The saying that the state was himself captured this claim to total royal authority. politics ●●●●●

1661 Louis XIV takes personal control of France ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Winning of Wars, 1660–1763 When Louis XIV took over full direction of the French government in March 1661, the European scene was particularly favorable to a monarch determined to impose his views ●●

1661 Revolution (1661) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ite Weltkrieg, vol. 1, Ursachen und Voraussetzungen der deutschen Kriegspolitik. Stuttgart, 1979. De Gaulle, C. Mémoires de Guerre, 3 vols., Paris, 1954-59. DePorte, A. Europe Be ●●

c. 1661 The permanent standing army becomes a fixture 0 cit. Under Louis XIV and his successors, European states build large permanent professional armies loyal to the crown rather than to nobles or mercenaries. The standing army, paid and controlled by the center, became the backbone of the military and security pillar. pillar / politics / war ●●●

1661 Event of 1661 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ation takes place. The Westphalian system met both tests in the eighteenth century, first by thwarting the thrust for hegemony by France’s Louis XIV, then by adjusting the system to the insistence of Prussia’s Frederick the Great for equal status. Lo ●●

1662 1662 law clarified older practices by making the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A 1662 law clarified older practices by making the children of a slave mother slaves, regardless of paternity (a sharp contrast to Islamic law) ; anot... ●●

15 July 1662 Charles II grants the Royal Society its royal charter 0 cit. King Charles II granted a royal charter to the Royal Society, formally establishing it as Britain's national academy of sciences with the monarch as its patron. The charter gave the Society legal standing and royal endorsement, though not funding or direction over its scientific work. Every British monarch since has continued as its patron, a role now held by Charles III. science ●●

1663 Thus, while the various wars against the Turks rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Thus, while the various wars against the Turks (1663–1664, 1683–1699, 1716–1718,1737–1739,1788–1791) showed the Habsburg armies generally enhancing their position in the Balkans, this struggle against ●●

1663 and was getting letters from the same address rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Box 1663, Santa Fe, New Mexico, and was getting letters from the same address,” she remembers ●●

1663 with her birthplace certified as Post Office Box 1663 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Claire was born in July, with her birthplace certified as Post Office Box 1663, Santa Fe ●●

1664 Founding of the French East India Company 0 cit. Finance minister Colbert founds the Compagnie des Indes Orientales to compete with the Dutch and English in Asian trade. It establishes French footholds in India, setting up a century of Anglo-French rivalry there. economy / exploration / politics ●●●

1664 England seizes New Netherland 0 cit. An English force took New Amsterdam without a fight and renamed it New York after the Duke of York. The seizure helped trigger the Second Anglo-Dutch War. politics / war ●●●

1664 Thus, while the various wars against the Turks rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Thus, while the various wars against the Turks (1663–1664, 1683–1699, 1716–1718,1737–1739,1788–1791) showed the Habsburg armies generally enhancing their position in the Balkans, this struggle against ●●

28 October 1664 Duke of York and Albany's Maritime Regiment of Foot raised 0 cit. England raised twelve hundred soldiers as the Duke of York and Albany's Maritime Regiment of Foot, a land force intended to serve aboard ships of the Royal Navy. This regiment is regarded as the founding unit of what became the Royal Marines, making it one of the oldest marine forces in the world. Marines fought alongside sailors and provided shipboard security and boarding parties. war ●●

27 August 1664 French East India Company founded 0 cit. French finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert chartered the Compagnie des Indes Orientales to compete with the English and Dutch trading companies in Asia. The company established French trading posts in India, including Pondicherry, and competed with Britain for influence on the subcontinent through the eighteenth century. France's Indian ambitions largely collapsed after military defeats to Britain, leaving it a handful of small coastal enclaves. economy / politics ●

September 1664 New Amsterdam becomes New York 0 cit. An English fleet arrives and the Dutch surrender New Amsterdam without a fight. The English rename it New York after the Duke of York, ending Dutch rule over the colony that had grown along the Hudson. politics / war ●●●

1665 Sabbatai Zevi proclaimed as Messiah 0 cit. Drawing on Lurianic ideas of redemption, Sabbatai Zevi declared himself the Messiah and gathered a vast following across the Jewish world. His prophet Nathan of Gaza announced that the messianic age would begin in 1666. religion / society ●●●●

1665 Great Plague strikes London ai_extracted 1 cit. no story During the bubonic plague outbreak in London, residents developed practical survival strategies including relocating to the countryside or isolating indoors. These intuitive approaches proved effective despite people's incorrect understanding of plague transmission. ●●

1665 s ideas before the outbreak of the Sabbatian movement (1665) rejected ai_extracted 2 cit. no story ropagation of Luria’s ideas before the outbreak of the Sabbatian movement (1665). Of special importa ●●

29 October 1665 Battle of Mbwila and the decline of Kongo 0 cit. Portuguese forces from Angola defeated and killed the Kongo king António I at the Battle of Mbwila, also called Ambuila. The defeat shattered central authority and touched off long civil wars among rival branches of the royal house. The once-unified kingdom fragmented, and its weakening left the wider region more exposed to the slave trade. politics / war ●●

1665 Sabbatai Zevi proclaimed the Messiah 0 cit. Drawing on Lurianic hopes of redemption, Sabbatai Zevi declared himself the Messiah, and his prophet Nathan of Gaza announced the dawning of the messianic age. A wave of ecstatic belief swept the Jewish world, from Yemen to Amsterdam, in the largest messianic movement since antiquity. religion / society ●●●

16 September 1666 Sabbatai Zevi converts to Islam 1 cit. Faced with execution by the Ottoman authorities, Sabbatai Zevi converted to Islam, stunning his followers and collapsing the mainstream of the movement. Some believers reinterpreted the conversion as a hidden stage of redemption. religion / society ●●●●

c. 1666 to c. 1667 The Great Schism of the Russian Church 1 cit. Patriarch Nikon's reforms to church ritual and texts split the Russian Orthodox Church and produced the Old Believers, who rejected the changes. Many Old Believers were persecuted and fled to the empire's edges. religion / society ●●●

c. 1666 The scientific revolution divorces astrology from astronomy 0 cit. As the new science took hold, learned academies dropped astrology and it lost its place in the universities. For the first time in three thousand years, the study of the stars and the reading of fate went separate ways. science / society ●●●

1666 ;; and Greeks; medieval and modern Christianity in; monasticism in; and prophecy rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ;; and Greeks; medieval and modern Christianity in; monasticism in; and prophecy Assumption: see Mary Assyria Assyrian Christians; see also Dyophysites Astell, Mary (1666 - 1731) astrology astronomy Athanasius (293 - 373); Life of Antony atheism; see ●●

c. 1666 Louis XIV builds France's permanent standing army 0 cit. War minister Louvois, under Louis XIV, built the largest standing army in Europe, introducing uniforms, standardized ranks, state-run supply depots (magasins), and drilled regular training rather than reliance on mercenaries and nobles' private retinues. The army grew to roughly 400,000 men at its peak, funded directly by the crown. It became a model other European states tried to imitate over the following century. politics / war ●●●

c. 1666 Louvois Builds France's Standing Royal Army 0 cit. As Louis XIV's Secretary of War, the Marquis de Louvois reorganized the French army into a large, centrally administered, and permanently maintained force, with standardized ranks, supply, and discipline. France's standing army grew to be the largest in Europe and became the model other monarchies tried to match. The buildup required steadily rising taxation, an early example of the fiscal and military demands of the state growing together. politics / war ●●

1667 Treaty of Breda ends the Second Anglo-Dutch War 0 cit. After a Dutch raid up the Medway humbled the English navy, the two sides made peace. The Dutch kept the nutmeg island of Run and Suriname while conceding New Netherland, trading a colony for a spice monopoly. economy / politics / war ●●

1667 Thomas Sprat publishes History of the Royal Society ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Thomas Sprat publishes the authoritative History of the Royal Society with frontispiece designed by John Evelyn and engraved by Wenceslas Hollar. ●●

1667 Information history in 1667 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ters) In such busie, and active times, there arise more new thoughts of men, which must be signifi’d, and varied by new expressions. ●●

1667 Founding of the Paris Lieutenance Générale de Police 0 cit. King Louis XIV created the office of Lieutenant General of Police in Paris, appointing Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie to the post. It was one of the first centralized, professional civil police forces in Europe, tasked with street lighting, sanitation, fire safety, and surveillance of the population. The office became a model for continental European policing and for the later use of police for political surveillance. politics ●●

1667 The Treaty of Breda and Suriname 0 cit. In the peace ending the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch keep the sugar colony of Suriname and let England keep New Netherland. The choice looked shrewd at the time, trading a cold northern colony for a rich plantation economy built on enslaved labor. diplomacy / economy ●●

17 September 1668 Founding of Sveriges Riksbank 0 cit. The Swedish parliament establishes Riksens Standers Bank from the wreckage of the failed Stockholms Banco. Renamed Sveriges Riksbank, it is the world's oldest surviving central bank. economy / politics ●●●●

1668 Latin edition of Leviathan published ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Latin edition of Leviathan is published, differing in some respects from the English version. ●●

1 June 1670 Secret Treaty of Dover 0 cit. Secret treaty in which Charles II of England agreed with Louis XIV to join France against the Dutch and to announce his conversion to Catholicism in exchange for French money. A public cover treaty concealed the religious clause. diplomacy / politics / religion ●●●

2 May 1670 Founding of the Hudson's Bay Company 0 cit. Charles II charters the Hudson's Bay Company with a fur trade monopoly over the vast watershed of Hudson Bay. For two centuries it acts as the de facto government of much of what becomes Canada. economy / exploration / politics ●●●●

2 May 1670 Charter of the Hudson's Bay Company 0 cit. Charles II granted a company of investors a monopoly over the fur trade of the vast Hudson Bay watershed. The company governed a huge swath of North America for two centuries. economy / exploration ●●●●

1670 Kangxi issues the sixteen Sacred Maxims ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Kangxi emperor worked to integrate the Han cultural corpus into his official pronouncements, issuing sixteen Sacred Maxims in 1670. ●●

2 May 1670 Hudson's Bay Company chartered 0 cit. Charles II granted a charter to the Hudson's Bay Company, giving it trading rights and effective governance over a vast territory of North America called Rupert's Land. The company dominated the fur trade and Indigenous relations in what became Canada for two centuries. It is still in operation today. economy / politics ●●

2 May 1670 Hudson's Bay Company is granted Rupert's Land 0 cit. Charles II chartered the Hudson's Bay Company and handed it trading rights and effective governing authority over Rupert's Land, the entire watershed draining into Hudson Bay, roughly 3.9 million square kilometers. For two centuries the company ran courts, forts, and a fur-trade economy across a territory larger than many European states. It surrendered Rupert's Land to the new Dominion of Canada in 1870, ending its role as a quasi-government. economy / politics ●●

2 May 1670 Hudson's Bay Company chartered to rule Rupert's Land 0 cit. A royal charter from Charles II gave the Hudson's Bay Company a trade monopoly and governing authority over Rupert's Land, a vast drainage basin covering much of present-day Canada. The company acted as landlord, court, and administrator across territory larger than many European states. Corporate rule over the region lasted until the land was sold to Canada in 1870. economy / politics ●●

1672 to 1676 Polish, Ottoman War of 1672-1676 wikidata 0 cit. no story war in South-Eastern Europe (1672-1676) ●●●●

April 1672 to 1678 Franco-Dutch War 0 cit. no story Louis XIV invades the Dutch Republic, which survives by opening its dikes and building a European coalition. The war establishes France as the dominant continental power. war ●●●

1672 Founding of the Royal African Company 0 cit. Charles II charters the Royal African Company with a monopoly on English trade with West Africa, including trade in enslaved people. It ships more enslaved Africans to the Americas than any other single institution. economy / politics / society ●●●●

1672 The Royal African Company and the Slave Trade 0 cit. Chartered with a monopoly on English trade along the West African coast, the Royal African Company shipped tens of thousands of enslaved people to the Americas. It made England a leading power in the transatlantic slave trade. economy / society ●●●●●

1672 to 1674 Third Anglo-Dutch War and the disaster year 0 cit. England joined France in attacking the Republic in a year the Dutch called the rampjaar, or disaster year. The Republic survived but the wars steadily transferred trade and naval advantage toward England. war ●●

1672 Royal African Company chartered 0 cit. England chartered the Royal African Company with a monopoly on the West African trade. It shipped tens of thousands of enslaved people and branded many with the company's initials. economy / politics ●●●●

1672 Under the Law of Ann (1672), the widow and children of a deceased minister of candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Under the Law of Ann (1672), the widow and children of a deceased minister of the Church of Scotland received only half a year’s stipend in the year of the minister’s death. ●●

27 September 1672 The Royal African Company is chartered for the slave trade 0 cit. The Crown chartered the Royal African Company with a monopoly over English trade on the West African coast, including gold, ivory, and enslaved people. Backed by the royal family and led for a time by the future James II, it shipped more enslaved Africans across the Atlantic than any other single institution in the era. It shows how the chartered-company model fused private profit with state-granted monopoly and force. economy / politics ●●

1673 Founding of Mitsui 0 cit. Mitsui Takatoshi opens the Echigoya dry goods store in Edo, selling kimono fabric at fixed cash prices, a retail innovation. The Mitsui house grows into one of Japan's largest zaibatsu and the ancestor of Mitsui Group. economy ●●●

1673 Event of 1673 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story y with Korea. Chinese traders were permitted to operate in select locations, though no official Sino-Japanese relations existed because no protocol could be worked out that satisfied both sides’ amour propre. Foreign trade with European countries was ●●

c. 1673 Samuel Pepys reforms the Royal Navy administration 0 cit. As Secretary to the Admiralty, Samuel Pepys overhauled Royal Navy administration, introducing competitive examinations for lieutenants, standardized ship classification, and more rigorous accounting for stores and pay. These reforms professionalized naval officer selection, which had previously depended heavily on patronage. The changes laid groundwork for the Royal Navy's later dominance at sea. politics / war ●●

c. 1673 Samuel Oppenheimer bankrolls the Habsburg wars 0 cit. Samuel Oppenheimer became the chief war financier of the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, supplying and funding the armies that fought the Ottomans and the French. Despite his service he faced mob attacks and official hostility, and after his death in 1703 the imperial treasury defaulted on much of what it owed him, nearly ruining his family. His career shows a financier used by the state, then abandoned by it. economy / war ●●

1674 Founding of the Maratha Empire 0 cit. Shivaji was crowned and established the Maratha Empire in western India. The Marathas grew to challenge Mughal power across much of the subcontinent. politics / war ●●●●

1675 to 1679 Scanian War wikidata 0 cit. no story part of the Northern Wars involving the union of Denmark-Norway, Brandenburg and Sweden ●●●●

June 1675 to 1678 King Philip's War 0 cit. no story Wampanoag leader Metacom leads a native coalition against the New England colonies in proportionally one of America's deadliest wars. The colonists' victory breaks native power in southern New England. war ●●

1677 to 1678 Knorr von Rosenroth's Kabbala Denudata 0 cit. Christian Knorr von Rosenroth translated large parts of the Zohar and Lurianic writings into Latin in his Kabbala Denudata. For nearly two centuries this was the main source through which Christian Europe encountered authentic Kabbalah. culture / religion ●●●●

1678 Henry More writes to Glanvil about witches rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Cambridge philosopher Henry More wrote a famous letter to author of Sadducismus Triumphatus in May 1678 defending the reality of witches against skeptics ●●

1680 to 1707 Mughal-Maratha Wars 0 cit. no story Emperor Aurangzeb spends 27 years trying to crush the Maratha state in the Deccan, at the cost of millions of lives. The unwinnable war exhausts the Mughal Empire and opens its decline. war ●●●●

c. 1680 The tobacco economy of the Chesapeake 0 cit. Tobacco made the early English colonies of Virginia and Maryland profitable and drew in enslaved African labour. The crop shaped the plantation society of the American South. economy / society ●●●

1680 Treatise of the Three Impostors written in the Netherlands ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Anonymous Treatise of the Three Impostors written in Netherlands, circulated widely in manuscript. ●●

c. 1680 The ker and the jobilo 0 cit. Beyond the ruoth, Luo life gave weight to ritual and prophetic figures. The title of ker marked a senior spiritual and ceremonial leader, while the jobilo were seers and war-diviners who read omens and advised on whether and how to raid. Their counsel could decide the timing of a campaign, binding warfare tightly to religious sanction. religion / society ●●

1682 Shackamaxon wikidata 0 cit. no story treaty between William Penn and the Delaware Indians ●●●

1682 War (1682) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story in. Madison, Wi., 1981. Quimby, R.S. The Background of Napoleonic Warfare. New York, 1957. Quinn, D.B., and A. N. Ryan. England’s Sea Empire, 1550-1642. London, 1983. Radice, L. ●●

1682 Economic (1682) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story . 8, ch. 11; Kochan and Abraham, Making of Modern Russia, chs. 7–9; Duffy, Russia’s Military Way to the West, passim; P. Dukes, The Making of Russian Absolutism 1613–1801 (London, ●●

1682 The Easter hare lays the eggs 0 cit. The first written record of the egg-laying Easter hare, the Osterhase, appears in Germany, the ancestor of the modern Easter Bunny. A folk custom with vague old associations of the hare with fertility and the moon, it became a children's tradition worldwide. culture / society ●●

1682 Hobbes publishes Behemoth ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Hobbes publishes Behemoth, a dialogue examining causes of the English Civil War. ●●

1682 ” In 1682, France’s North American territories were named “Louisiana rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story That was one reason why he liked to give his ministers authority over the highest in the Land, even over the Princes of the Blood. In 1680, Louis symbolized the nature of his all-embracing rule by assuming the title “the Great” to go with his earlier ●●

1683 to 1699 Great Turkish War wikidata 0 cit. no story series of conflicts (1683-1699) between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League (Habsburg Empire, Poland-Lithuania, Venice, Russia), ending with the latter's victory ●●●●

1683 Qing conquest of Taiwan 0 cit. Qing forces defeated the Ming loyalist regime on Taiwan in 1683. The island was incorporated into the empire. war ●●●