Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media

Edward S. Herman, Noam Chomsky

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Viet Cong. The results of B-52 saturation bombing were a “tragedy of war.” But when a North Vietnam whole source
” But when a North Vietnamese artillery shell hit an orphanage in An Hoa in October 1970, ABC’s George Watson commented with horror: “No one…
OPLAN-34A operations against North Vietnam begin whole source
-run military operations against North Vietnam began on February 1, 1964 (OPLAN-34A), using South Vietnamese and “third-country” mercenaries…
sm” and “a coalition government” (Maxwell Taylor, Aug. 10, 1964), and who warned about “Saigon and V whole source
10, 1964), and who warned about “Saigon and Vientiane hanky panky with Reds” (John McNaughton, October 1964)—that is, moves toward a politic…
o try to achieve its objectives in Vietnam, demolishing much of Indochina in the process and leaving whole source
Finally, in January 1973, the United States formally accepted a peace treaty that was virtually identical with the Vietnamese consensus it o…
Tet Offensive begins in Vietnam whole source
The Tet offensive of January 1968 began on January 21 with a siege by North Vietnamese (NVA) regulars of a U
, and the Pentagon systems-analysis group concluded that “our control of the countryside and the def whole source
d that “our control of the countryside and the defense of the urban areas is now essentially at pre-August 1965 levels,” when the U
r was being lost, according to General Westmoreland. A U.S. government military-historical summary o whole source
government military-historical summary of the offensive in the Mekong Delta, completed in April 1968, concluded that “The Tet offensive in I…
tive reaction to the President’s handling of the war and the war itself, and a distinct opposition t whole source
” In early February 1968, when the impact of the alleged media “distortions” and “pessimism” reached its peak, public opinion shifted toward…
falsely attributes to the media (see appendix 3), and estimated that “our control of the countryside whole source
and estimated that “our control of the countryside and the defense of the urban areas is now at pre-August 1965 levels
hat, if the managers do not themselves take action, then outsiders [in the government] will seek to whole source
”134 And, in fact, in January 1988, General Dimitri T
refugee programs deliberately aimed at depriving the VC of a recruiting base,” in accordance with th whole source
he VC of a recruiting base,” in accordance with the advice of pacification director Robert Komer in April 1967
use they were regarded as inconsistent with the essential goal: preservation of an “independent” Sou whole source
By October 1972, the negotiators in Paris had reached the essential terms of an agreement: the 9-Point Plan
Hanoi has never abandoned its objective of living up to the terms of the Geneva Accords of 1954, now whole source
up to the terms of the Geneva Accords of 1954, now explicitly reiterated in the Paris Agreements of January 1973
rprisingly, been applied in subsequent efforts by the U.S. government to gain its ends by violence. whole source
One dramatic example was featured in the media in August 1987, when the Central American presidents confounded Washington strategy by adopti…
he issues were limited to tactics and expedience, a matter of much government concern. Defense Secre whole source
Defense Secretary McNamara warned the president, in secret, in May 1967 that expansion of the American war might “polarize opinion to the ex…
Anti-war march on the Pentagon whole source
in battle gear” during “the massive anti-war demonstration” and “massive march on the Pentagon” in October 1967 was particularly disturbing,…
ed the Viet Cong as “righteous peasants,” there being none, and no example of anyone who denied that whole source
ing none, and no example of anyone who denied that North Vietnamese troops had entered the South by November 1965, since, again, there were…
aced an enemy combat force of 48,500, 97 percent of them South Vietnamese guerrillas (“Viet Cong”). whole source
A few months after the Ia Drang Valley battle, in March 1966, the Pentagon reported 13,100 North Vietnamese forces in the South, along with…
Balance is also preserved in an “account from both sides” of what happened in the village of Thuy Bo whole source
ce is also preserved in an “account from both sides” of what happened in the village of Thuy Bo, in January 1967, where British producer Mar…
apons were Vietcong rockets, the victims were Danang civilians” killed by the Viet Cong and North Vi whole source
After the breakdown of negotiations in October 1972, “The North was again intransigent,” we learn—namely, in demanding that the agreements b…
too, the agreement was still unacceptable,” the familiar evasion of U.S. responsibility (see “The P whole source
The terms of the January 1973 agreement are given, but with no indication that the U
y operations began in 1961, and the regular U.S. bombing began in early 1964: Operation Barrel Roll, whole source
ombing began in early 1964: Operation Barrel Roll, directed against northern Laos, was initiated in December 1964, several months before the…
eld by the enemy.” He describes “the motionless ruins and deserted houses” of the capital of Sam Neu whole source
Air Force in February 1965
to the New York Times, through 1968 there was no mention of the bombing apart from tiny items report whole source
On May 18, 1969, the Times reported U
y be attributed to “the vicious invasion of the North Vietnamese”—which did, however, include such a whole source
Air Force men in March 1968 at a U
Congress ends U.S. bombing of Cambodia whole source
Though Congress legislated an end to the bombing in August 1973, U
Khmer Rouge take power in Cambodia whole source
government participation in the ongoing slaughter continued until the Khmer Rouge victory in April 1975
ptical of the allegations that had received wide publicity by 1977—rightly, so subsequent inquiry re whole source
The Far Eastern Economic Review based its January 1979 conclusion that the population had actually risen during the Pol Pot period on CIA so…
scholar lauded by Freedom House and the exemplar of the new, nonideological scholarship much admired whole source
Pike described Pol Pot in November 1979 as the “charismatic” leader of a “bloody but successful peasant revolution with a substantial residu…
] . . . did not experience much in the way of brutality.”37 The 1980 CIA demographic study assigns t whole source
”37 The 1980 CIA demographic study assigns the Pol Pot–era executions to the period ending in January 1977, and for 1977–78 merely says that…
Coup overthrows Prince Sihanouk in Cambodia whole source
The country was ruled by Prince Sihanouk until March 1970, when he was overthrown in a coup supported by the United States
about “North Vietnamese aggression,” the internal view in Washington was considerably more nuanced. whole source
From the Pentagon Papers we learn that as late as May 1967—well after the U
BS-TV) were present—the usual pattern. whole source
Thus Cambodia complained to the United Nations that on February 24, 1967, “a large number of armed forces elements consisting of Americans,…
o, more than any other U.S. reporter, came to be regarded as the conscience of the media with regard whole source
Schanberg arrived in Phnom Penh in May 1973, at the height of the intensified bombing, which continued until the mid-August halt
) in 1975, is described sardonically by Michael Vickery as “the standard total view” (STV). Accordin whole source
According to the STV, prior to the Khmer Rouge victory in April 1975, Cambodia had been a “gentle land” (Barron and Paul) of “gentle if emot…
al enemy, nothing at all could be done, a point that was stressed by government experts when George whole source
at was stressed by government experts when George McGovern called for international intervention in August 1978, eliciting much media ridicu…
was also an insistent claim right at the peak of the bitter outrage over Pol Pot genocide. Time maga whole source
Time magazine published a major article by David Aikman on July 31, 1978, claiming that the Khmer Rouge “experiment in genocide” was being i…
aim, with its reference to “the grim reality” of Cambodia under Khmer Rouge rule. Second, the source whole source
Second, the source of the manufactured quote is a work published in November 1979, almost a year after the fall of the Pol Pot regime
alleged links to Al Qaeda and vague references to the West’s democratic-liberation-stabilization ai whole source
16 The WMD threat was said by President Bush on March 6, 2003, to be the “single question,” whose answer led to the eventual attack,17 altho…
nd of claims they were making to the public, coming as it did from the Newspaper of Record. Thus, wh whole source
Thus, when the escalated war propaganda campaign began in September 2002,20 the New York Times soon ran a long front-page article by Judith…
making, which turned out (and were quickly recognized by many in the intelligence community) to be whole source
On that very same day, September 8, 2002, Dick Cheney, appearing on NBC – TV’s Meet the Press, cited this Times article at length as backup…
reasonous for disagreeing with the party line.23 Hussein Kamel’s claim that Saddam’s WMD had been de whole source
ussein Kamel’s claim that Saddam’s WMD had been destroyed in 1991 was first reported in Newsweek on March 3, 2003, and subsequently by the W…
loped any significant capability with respect to weapons of mass destruction. He is unable to projec whole source
”26 On July 29, 2001, National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice stated that “We are able to keep his arms from him [Saddam Hussein]
er goal—“democracy promotion” throughout the Middle East and in fact across the globe.29 Michael Ign whole source
29 Michael Ignatieff, writing in the New York Times Magazine of June 26, 2005, asserted that Bush has “risked his presidency on the premise…
Bush names Iran in axis of evil speech whole source
Iran was named by George Bush in his January 2002 State of the Union message as one of the three charter members of the “axis of evil” (alon…
ample of sources drawn from U.S. print and wire service media, references to Iran’s alleged nuclear whole source
rvice media, references to Iran’s alleged nuclear weapons program rose by 382 percent from April to May 2003, and by a huge 1,164 percent fr…
ice media, references to Iran’s alleged nuclear weapons program rose by 382 percent from April to Ma whole source
apons program rose by 382 percent from April to May 2003, and by a huge 1,164 percent from April to June 2003
he expressed principles of international order were never quoted by any major U.S. print media; in f whole source
print media; in fact, it wasn’t until the second NAM statement, on July 30, 2008, that a U
ent and held a press conference on July 2. That statement and the press conference proceedings were whole source
embassy in Guatemala City on July 18, 1984, and form the basis for the discussion below
arian Connection, we will examine in detail the article by John Tagliabue, “Verdict on Papal Plot, B whole source
ticle by John Tagliabue, “Verdict on Papal Plot, But No Answer,” published in the New York Times on March 31, 1986
police that at a meeting in Romania, the Warsaw Pact powers had decided to kill the pope. This was whole source
This was apparently a leak of the forged SISMI document of May 19, 1981, which had made this claim
My Lai massacre exposed in the press whole source
d version of the Hué massacre, a few days after the belated exposure of the My Lai massacre in late November 1969, when
ensive literature by Vietnam veterans. whole source
claims that “one searches in vain through most of the media descriptions of the foe, even well into March 1968, for indications that the ene…
ar caused the Soviet defense minister to denounce the press as unpatriotic; see Bill Keller, “Soviet whole source
the press as unpatriotic; see Bill Keller, “Soviet Official Says Press Harms Army,” New York Times, January 21, 1988
ocracy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000), p. 108. whole source
),” The Nation, December 1, 1997
asting Sells; (Out?),” The Nation, December 1, 1997. whole source
Stephanie Strom, “Japanese Sites for Women Aim for Empowerment,” New York Times, December 25, 2000
Development of Impact Mitigation Strategies Related to the Use of Agent Orange Herbicide in the Aluo whole source
Development of Impact Mitigation Strategies Related to the Use of Agent Orange Herbicide in the Aluoi Valley, Viet Nam, vol
ties in Vietnam (Philadelphia: Pilgrim Press, 1970), pp. 81–83. whole source
Harvard University physician Jean Mayer, “Crop Destruction in Vietnam,” Science (April 15, 1966)
y, The Chemical Scythe: Lessons of 2,4,5-T and Dioxin (New York: Plenum Publishing, 1982), pp. 187–9 whole source
General Assembly Resolution 2603A (XXIV), December 16, 1969, “viewed with horror” and strongly condemned the U
ession” ensues, with only a slight interruption in the early 1990s. whole source
” Financial Times, March 31, 1998; Richard Stevenson, “The Wisdom to Let the Good Times Roll,” New York Times, December 25, 2000
Gerald Baker, “Is This Great, Or What?” Financial Times, March 31, 1998; Richard Stevenson, “The Wi whole source
Times, March 31, 1998; Richard Stevenson, “The Wisdom to Let the Good Times Roll,” New York Times, December 25, 2000
5, 2000. There were, however, occasional cautionary notes, as in Anne Adams Lang, “Behind the Prospe whole source
y notes, as in Anne Adams Lang, “Behind the Prosperity, Working People in Trouble,” New York Times, November 20, 2000
12. For example, in response to the Guatemala peace accords of August 1987, the United States immedi whole source
For example, in response to the Guatemala peace accords of August 1987, the United States immediately escalated the supply flights required…
violations of the accords, but they were virtually unmentioned in the media. For a detailed review, whole source
” Z magazine (January 1988)
vernment’s possible manipulative intent, the media have set themselves up to be “managed.” Their obj whole source
In early October 1986, memos were leaked to the press indicating that the Reagan administration had carried out a deliberate campaign of dis…
ms and Turner threats to CBS, Laurence Tisch, of Loews Corporation, was encouraged to increase his h whole source
In August 1986, the Loews interest was raised to 24
e Edward S. Herman’s review of The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism, “Michael Novak’s Promised Land: whole source
ratic Capitalism, “Michael Novak’s Promised Land: Unfettered Corporate Capitalism,” Monthly Review (October 1983), and the works cited in th…
ted in the preface, note 3. whole source
Power Structure,” Social Problems (February 1982), pp
apers on Central America, said a GAO official involved in the investigation” (Rita Beamish, “Pro-con whole source
lved in the investigation” (Rita Beamish, “Pro-contra Contracts are Probed,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 22, 1987, p
s B. Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality (New York: Norton, 1984), p. 110. whole source
Peggy Dardenne, “Corporate Advertising,” Public Relations Journal (November 1982), p
ter 3, “The Politicization of the Business Community”; and Saloma, Ominous Politics, chapter 6, “The whole source
The April 14, 1986, U
tually fired him for criticizing their badly compromised handling of his case. See Chris Christianse whole source
See Chris Christiansen, “Keeping In With The Generals,” New Statesman, January 4, 1985
in Peter Golding, Graham Murdock and Philip Schlesinger, eds., Communicating Politics (New York: Ho whole source
Editorial, March 1, 1973
erest in the West in this particular case. whole source
he New York Times Index, for example, has seven full pages of citations to the KAL 007 incident for September 1983 alone
10. On May 6, 1986, Laura Pinto, a member of the Salvadoran “Mothers of the Disappeared,” was picked whole source
On May 6, 1986, Laura Pinto, a member of the Salvadoran “Mothers of the Disappeared,” was picked up by three armed men, beaten, raped, and l…
ad previously traveled to Europe and made Western Europeans aware of her existence (Jane Dibblin, “E whole source
Europeans aware of her existence (Jane Dibblin, “El Salvador’s Death Squads Defy European Opinion,” June 13, 1986)
the “Mothers of the Disappeared” who had herself been a victim of the atrocities of Duarte’s securit whole source
een a victim of the atrocities of Duarte’s security forces was denied entry to the United States in March 1987, to visit several small towns…
the murders. whole source
Juan de Onis, “Rightist Terror Stirs Argentina,” New York Times, August 29, 1976
, August 29, 1976. whole source
ohn Dinges, “Evidence Indicates Military Planned Missionaries’ Deaths,” National Catholic Reporter, July 17, 1981
nned Missionaries’ Deaths,” National Catholic Reporter, July 17, 1981. whole source
Stephen Kinzer, “Ex-Aide in Salvador Accuses Colleagues on Death Squads,” March 3, 1984
El Salvador opposition leaders murdered in San Salvador whole source
f the political opposition in El Salvador were tortured, murdered, and mutilated in San Salvador in November 1980
a model illustration of observer bias and foolishness, see appendix 1 on the findings of a U.S. off whole source
official-observer team at the Guatemalan election of July 1, 1984
he Salvadoran elections” (Senator Nancy Kassenbaum, Report of the U.S. Official Observer Mission to whole source
Official Observer Mission to the El Salvador Constituent Assembly Elections of March 28, 1982, Report to the Senate Foreign Relations Commit…
t at many places voting officials stamped the cedulas of those unable to vote because of crowding ju whole source
In the July 1, 1984, election for a constituent assembly, null and blank votes exceeded those of any party and were a staggering 26 percent…
ly restricted in 1982, allegedly for security reasons but making for longer lines. whole source
“Media Coverage of El Salvador’s Election,” Socialist Review (April 1983), p
overage of El Salvador’s Election,” Socialist Review (April 1983), p. 29. whole source
“Salvadorans Jam Polling Stations; Rebels Close Some,” New York Times, March 29, 1982
103. Philip Taubman, “U.S. Role in Nicaragua Vote Disputed,” New York Times, October 21, 1984. Rober whole source
Role in Nicaragua Vote Disputed,” New York Times, October 21, 1984
of terror and despair, of macabre rumour and grisly reality” (Pratap C. Chitnis, “Observing El Salv whole source
Chitnis, “Observing El Salvador: The 1984 Elections,” Third World Quarterly [October 1984], pp
erage that showed the slightest degree of network enterprise, critical capability, and honesty, was whole source
enterprise, critical capability, and honesty, was a program “To Kill the Pope,” aired on “20/20” on May 12, 1983
e story of this encounter.) Among the newspapers, a propaganda conformity prevailed until the time t whole source
a propaganda conformity prevailed until the time that prosecutor Albano’s report was made public in June 1984, when Michael Dobbs, of the Wa…
ing hypothesis. See Herman and Brodhead, Bulgarian Connection, “The Small Voices of Dissent,” pp. 19 whole source
, in October 1982, during which time he benefited not only from the insights of Arnauld de Borchgrave, but was also given a special viewing…
The latter is based on a complete coverage of the New York Times from 1961 through mid-1965, and an whole source
New York Times from 1961 through mid-1965, and an extensive sample of television network news from August 1965 through January 1973
on a complete coverage of the New York Times from 1961 through mid-1965, and an extensive sample of whole source
1961 through mid-1965, and an extensive sample of television network news from August 1965 through January 1973
see Noam Chomsky, “The U.S. Media and the Tet Offensive,” Race & Class (London) XX, 1 (1978), and an whole source
nsive,” Race & Class (London) XX, 1 (1978), and an excerpted version in the journalism review More (June 1978); also Gareth Porter, “Who Los…
46. See Charles Kadushin, The American Intellectual Elite (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974). This study whole source
This study was based on lengthy interviews taken in May 1970, after the Cambodia invasion, when public opposition to the war reached its hig…
ical grounds” by the author) that all would have adopted had they been asked about the Soviet invasi whole source
Philadelphia Inquirer, August 30, 1987
or time because of their lack of indigenous support, which made political competition intolerable. S whole source
See “Free Choice or Subjugation,” American Report, May 7, 1971
y the retreating NLF forces, see our PEHR, I, 345ff., and sources cited, particularly Gareth Porter, whole source
, and sources cited, particularly Gareth Porter, “The 1968 ‘Hué Massacre,’” Congressional Record, February 19, 1975, pp
the first sighting of a battalion of North Vietnamese regulars in the South, see Kahin, Intervention whole source
Korean mercenaries began to arrive in January 1965, while Taiwanese soldiers had reached “several hundred” by mid-1964, in addition to “a co…
botage missions in the North as well as fighting in the South. For McNamara’s estimate, see his stat whole source
For McNamara’s estimate, see his statement before the Senate Armed Services Committee, January 22, 1968; excerpts in Big Story, II, 14ff
185. Louis Wiznitzer, Christian Science Monitor, November 6, 1981; Kamm, “In Mosaic of Southeast Asi whole source
Louis Wiznitzer, Christian Science Monitor, November 6, 1981; Kamm, “In Mosaic of Southeast Asia, Capitalist Lands Are Thriving,” New York T…
85. Louis Wiznitzer, Christian Science Monitor, November 6, 1981; Kamm, “In Mosaic of Southeast Asia whole source
vember 6, 1981; Kamm, “In Mosaic of Southeast Asia, Capitalist Lands Are Thriving,” New York Times, November 8, 1981
detailed critique of this highly praised best-seller, see Noam Chomsky, “The Vietnam War in the Age whole source
ler, see Noam Chomsky, “The Vietnam War in the Age of Orwell,” Race & Class 4 (1984 [Boston Review, January 1984])
29. AP, Boston Globe, September 24, 1978, citing the Report of the International Labor Organization whole source
AP, Boston Globe, September 24, 1978, citing the Report of the International Labor Organization in Geneva on over fifty million child labore…
Thailand. On the brutal treatment of many of the estimated 10.7 million child laborers in Thailand, whole source
(January–March 1985) (Coordinating Group for Religion in Society, Bangkok); Thai Development Newsletter 3
uman Rights in Thailand Report 9.1. (January–March 1985) (Coordinating Group for Religion in Society whole source
1 1985 (December 1986) (Bangkok)
t), Hearing before the Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Affairs whole source
, September 14, 1982, p
f their qualms, and how they resolved them, and similar concerns elsewhere, see Chomsky, Towards a N whole source
Nayan Chanda, FEER, November 1, 1984; November 7, 1985, with minor modifications, their general position from early on in phase III
d how they resolved them, and similar concerns elsewhere, see Chomsky, Towards a New Cold War, chapt whole source
Nayan Chanda, FEER, November 1, 1984; November 7, 1985, with minor modifications, their general position from early on in phase III
he Program on International Policy Attitudes (http://www.pipa.org/) over a number of years, includin whole source
org/) over a number of years, including: “The Federal Budget: The Public’s Priorities,” March 7, 2005; “Americans on International Courts an…
ars, including: “The Federal Budget: The Public’s Priorities,” March 7, 2005; “Americans on Internat whole source
Priorities,” March 7, 2005; “Americans on International Courts and Their Jurisdiction over the US,” May 11, 2006; “A Majority of Americans R…
on International Courts and Their Jurisdiction over the US,” May 11, 2006; “A Majority of Americans whole source
er the US,” May 11, 2006; “A Majority of Americans Reject Threats in Favor of Diplomacy with Iran,” December 7, 2006; “Americans Strongly Su…
37. “Winds of change in the Middle East: Call for careful reflection about causes and not triumphali whole source
e East: Call for careful reflection about causes and not triumphalism,” Editorial, Financial Times, March 5, 2005
m,” Editorial, Financial Times, March 5, 2005. whole source
Fattah, “Syria Under Pressure: Worse Trouble May Lie Ahead,” New York Times, March 3, 2005
democracy has a chance to flourish.” “President Participates in Job Training and Education Conversa whole source
articipates in Job Training and Education Conversation,” White House Office of the Press Secretary, March 2, 2005
2. In a letter of December 20, 1984, to one of his constituents who had complained of his gullibilit whole source
In a letter of December 20, 1984, to one of his constituents who had complained of his gullibility as an observer, Brier asserted that his o…
es, and the media more generally, as we have seen. whole source
Brier distinguished himself as a member of the official delegation to the Philippines election of February 1986 won by Ferdinand Marcos by a…
few scattered phrases embedded in his own highly unreliable paraphrases, unsubstantiated by any text whole source
” Inquiry, February 20, 1978; see references of chapter 5, note 119; also Noam Chomsky and Edward S
Herman have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs and Pate... whole source
Herman have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to be identified as the authors of this work This book is…
Contents Cover Title Copyright Dedication By the Same Authors Ta... whole source
Contents Cover Title Copyright Dedication By the Same Authors Tables Introduction to the 2002 Edition Preface 1 A Propaganda Model 2 Worthy…
Introduction to the 2002 Edition This book centers in what we call a ... whole source
Introduction to the 2002 Edition This book centers in what we call a “Propaganda model,” an analytical framework that attempts to explain th…
Ben Bagdikian notes that when the first edition of his Media Monopoly ... whole source
Ben Bagdikian notes that when the first edition of his Media Monopoly was published in 1983, fifty giant firms dominated almost every mass m…
Japanese women have been able to tap newly created Web sites devoted t... whole source
Japanese women have been able to tap newly created Web sites devoted to their problems, where they can talk and share experiences and inform…
When the leading members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) attempt... whole source
When the leading members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) attempted in 1998 to push through in secret a Multilateral Agreement on Inves…
The citizenry was never given the opportunity to approve or disapprove... whole source
The citizenry was never given the opportunity to approve or disapprove the wholesale transfer of broadcasting rights to commercial interests…
Our prediction is that the victims of enemy states will be found “wort... whole source
Our prediction is that the victims of enemy states will be found “worthy” and will be subject to more intense and indignant coverage than th…
client-state El Salvador in 1980; he was given more coverage than the ... whole source
client-state El Salvador in 1980; he was given more coverage than the aggregate of one hundred religious victims killed in U.S.
Thus, with the United States and its NATO allies warring against Yugos... whole source
Thus, with the United States and its NATO allies warring against Yugoslavia in 1999, allegedly in response to that country’s mistreatment of…
public that our intervention there was approved by the local populatio... whole source
public that our intervention there was approved by the local population; whereas when Nicaragua held an election in 1984, the Reagan adminis…
Hun Sen a veneer of legitimacy.”42 In reporting on the Yugoslavian ele... whole source
Hun Sen a veneer of legitimacy.”42 In reporting on the Yugoslavian election of September 2000, in which U.S.
Thus, in its first editorial on the 1988 election that brought Carlos ... whole source
Thus, in its first editorial on the 1988 election that brought Carlos Salinas de Gortari to power, the Times noted that prior elections were…
Later in 1991, at Senate hearings on the confirmation of Robert Gates ... whole source
Later in 1991, at Senate hearings on the confirmation of Robert Gates as head of the CIA, former CIA officers Melvin Goodman and Harold Ford…
But as in 1986, after the case against the Bulgarians was dismissed in... whole source
But as in 1986, after the case against the Bulgarians was dismissed in an Italian court for insufficient evidence, none of them felt any obl…
The United States first intervened in Indochina immediately after Worl... whole source
The United States first intervened in Indochina immediately after World War II in support of French recolonization, after which it carried o…
intervention was justified by the fact of “communism on the march” (ed... whole source
intervention was justified by the fact of “communism on the march” (editorial, Washington Post, April 30, 2000).
Closely related was the theme that we were protecting “South Vietnam” ... whole source
Closely related was the theme that we were protecting “South Vietnam” and the “South Vietnamese,” who “let the Americans take over the fight…
Heavy US bombing of Laos's Plain of Jars whole source
LAOS Laos’s Plain of Jars was subjected to some of the heaviest bombings of civilian targets in history, especially after 1968, when Washing…
Important changes have occurred in Cambodia since 1988, including Viet... whole source
Important changes have occurred in Cambodia since 1988, including Vietnam’s withdrawal from that country, elections held under UN auspices,…
Vietnam ousts Pol Pot from power whole source
We noted in chapter 7 that, after the Vietnamese had ousted Pol Pot in December 1978, although the United States and its allies had denounce…
President Carter’s National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski state... whole source
President Carter’s National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski stated in 1979 that “I encouraged the Chinese to support Pol Pot.
Consider, for example, their coverage of the passage of the North Amer... whole source
Consider, for example, their coverage of the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the subsequent Mexican financial…
And while labor was attacked for its alleged position on these issues,... whole source
And while labor was attacked for its alleged position on these issues, the press refused to allow the actual position to be expressed.109 In…
They were oblivious to the profoundly undemocratic nature of this lock... whole source
They were oblivious to the profoundly undemocratic nature of this lock-in, made more questionable by the fact that it had been negotiated by…
Reagan fires 11,000 striking air traffic controllers whole source
President Reagan’s firing of 11,000 striking air-controllers in 1981 “put the government seal of approval on strike-breaking and a new era o…
Pittston miners' strike begins whole source
In a notable illustration of the applicability of the propaganda model, the nine-month-long Pittston miners’ strike that began in April 1989…
In its euphoria phase, which ended abruptly with the collapse of the d... whole source
In its euphoria phase, which ended abruptly with the collapse of the dot.com market in 1999 and 2000, the mainstream media hardly noticed th…
In the years since 1988, structural changes have not been favorable to... whole source
In the years since 1988, structural changes have not been favorable to improved performance, but it remains a central truth that democratic…
Along with trying to contain and reverse the growing centralization of... whole source
Along with trying to contain and reverse the growing centralization of the mainstream media, grassroots movements and intermediate groups th…
fear of Nicaragua is based more on its virtues than on its alleged def... whole source
fear of Nicaragua is based more on its virtues than on its alleged defects.10 The mass media also steer clear of discussing the background a…
It is possible that the volume of inconvenient facts can expand, as it... whole source
It is possible that the volume of inconvenient facts can expand, as it did during the Vietnam War, in response to the growth of a critical c…
government’s urgent claims of a shipment of MIGs to Nicaragua on Novem... whole source
government’s urgent claims of a shipment of MIGs to Nicaragua on November 5, 1984, the media do not stop to ponder the bias that is inherent…
The Sunday Express, launched in 1918, spent over two million pounds be... whole source
The Sunday Express, launched in 1918, spent over two million pounds before it broke even with a circulation of over 250,000.7 Similar proces…
Louis Democrat in 1872 yielded $456,000; and city newspapers were sell... whole source
Louis Democrat in 1872 yielded $456,000; and city newspapers were selling at from $6 to $18 million in the 1920s.8 The cost of machinery alo…
Family owners have been increasingly divided between those wanting to ... whole source
Family owners have been increasingly divided between those wanting to take advantage of the new opportunities and those desiring a continuat…
Gannett 3,365 540 276 2,801 General Electric (NBC) 34,591 3,689... whole source
Gannett 3,365 540 276 2,801 General Electric (NBC) 34,591 3,689 2,492 36,725 Hearst3 4,040 NA 215 (1983) 2,100 (1983) Knight-Ridder 1,947 26…
Murdoch)4 8,460 377 170 3,822 New York Times 1,405 256 132 1,... whole source
Murdoch)4 8,460 377 170 3,822 New York Times 1,405 256 132 1,565 Reader’s Digest5 NA 75–110 (1985) NA 1,400 (1985) Scripps-Howard6 NA NA NA…
ITT's bid to acquire ABC fails whole source
It may be recalled that from 1965 to 1967, an attempt by International Telephone and Telegraph (ITT) to acquire ABC was frustrated following…
One advertising executive stated in 1856 that some journals are poor v... whole source
One advertising executive stated in 1856 that some journals are poor vehicles because “their readers are not purchasers, and any money throw…
WNET loses Gulf and Western funding over documentary whole source
Public-television station WNET lost its corporate funding from Gulf + Western in 1985 after the station showed the documentary “Hungry for P…
Fulbright had found that the air force public-relations effort in 1968... whole source
Fulbright had found that the air force public-relations effort in 1968 involved 1,305 full-time employees, exclusive of additional thousands…
In 1971, an Armed Forces Journal survey revealed that the Pentagon was... whole source
In 1971, an Armed Forces Journal survey revealed that the Pentagon was publishing a total of 371 magazines at an annual cost of some $57 mil…
Chamber of Commerce had a 1983 budget for research, communications, an... whole source
Chamber of Commerce had a 1983 budget for research, communications, and political activities of $65 million.73 By 1980, the chamber was publ…
Corporate and trade-association image and issues advertising increased... whole source
Corporate and trade-association image and issues advertising increased from $305 million in 1975 to $650 million in 1980.76 So did direct-ma…
Aggregate corporate and trade-association political advertising and gr... whole source
Aggregate corporate and trade-association political advertising and grass-roots outlays were estimated to have reached the billion-dollar-a-…
This is a compilation of all appearances on the news hour concerning t... whole source
This is a compilation of all appearances on the news hour concerning the Bulgarian Connection (3), the shooting down of the Korean airliner…
The American Legal Foundation, organized in 1980, has specialized in F... whole source
The American Legal Foundation, organized in 1980, has specialized in Fairness Doctrine complaints and libel suits to aid “media victims.” Th…
The main theme of its sponsored studies and conferences has been the f... whole source
The main theme of its sponsored studies and conferences has been the failure of the media to portray business accurately and to give adequat…
They would tend to stand alone in focusing on victims that from the st... whole source
They would tend to stand alone in focusing on victims that from the standpoint of dominant American interests were unworthy.118 In marked co…
Soviets shoot down Korean airliner KAL 007 whole source
This was true, for example, of the shooting down by the Soviets of the Korean airliner KAL 007 in early September 1983, which permitted an e…
officials “assert that worldwide criticism of the Soviet handling of t... whole source
officials “assert that worldwide criticism of the Soviet handling of the crisis has strengthened the United States in its relations with Mos…
Polish police murder priest Jerzy Popieluszko whole source
JERZY POPIELUSZKO VERSUS A HUNDRED RELIGIOUS VICTIMS IN LATIN AMERICA A useful comparison can be made between the mass media’s treatment of…
client states:1 Row 2 shows the coverage given seventy-two individuals... whole source
client states:1 Row 2 shows the coverage given seventy-two individuals in a list of Latin American religious “martyrs” named by Penny Lernou…
Archbishop Oscar Romero assassinated in El Salvador whole source
Row 4 summarizes the coverage of the murder of Archbishop Oscar Romero, of El Salvador, shot by an assassin in March 1980.
and Michael Kaufman, of the Times, twice manages to drag in the plot t... whole source
and Michael Kaufman, of the Times, twice manages to drag in the plot to kill the pope, which the U.S.
RUTILIO GRANDE AND THE UNWORTHY SEVENTY-TWO As shown on table 2–1, th... whole source
RUTILIO GRANDE AND THE UNWORTHY SEVENTY-TWO As shown on table 2–1, the unworthy seventy-two on Penny Lernoux’s list of martyrs were subject…
The drama is there for the asking—only the press concern is missing.12... whole source
The drama is there for the asking—only the press concern is missing.12 TABLE 2–2 The Savageries Inflicted on Worthy and Unworthy Victims, as…
John Bushnell, of the State Department, stated before a House appropri... whole source
John Bushnell, of the State Department, stated before a House appropriations committee that “there is some misperception by those who follow…
José Napoleón Duarte joined the junta in March to serve as a fig leaf ... whole source
José Napoleón Duarte joined the junta in March to serve as a fig leaf and public-relations agent of the army, but all those who were not sat…
By the end of May, church sources reported 1,844 civilian deaths alrea... whole source
By the end of May, church sources reported 1,844 civilian deaths already in 1980, a figure that reached 10,000 by the end of the year, almos…
is straightforward lying: Romero never accused the left of torture or ... whole source
is straightforward lying: Romero never accused the left of torture or widespread killing, he never equated the right and the left, and he wa…
officials, and examination of State Department cables, investigative r... whole source
officials, and examination of State Department cables, investigative reporters Craig Pyes and Laurie Becklund claimed in 1983 that D’Aubuiss…
Pyes and Becklund write that “During the time Vides commanded the Guar... whole source
Pyes and Becklund write that “During the time Vides commanded the Guard, active-duty military officers working with the G-2 were linked in S…
D'Aubuisson arrested in raid over Romero plot whole source
After D’Aubuisson was caught in a raid on May 8, 1980, with documents showing that he was planning a coup and with evidence of his involveme…
At the previously mentioned meeting of the Salvadoran officer corps, C... whole source
At the previously mentioned meeting of the Salvadoran officer corps, Colonel Adolfo Majano, the last of the reformers in the “reformist” jun…
On November 29, 1980, following the massacre of the leaders of the opp... whole source
On November 29, 1980, following the massacre of the leaders of the opposition in San Salvador, the Times suggested that there is “a severe c…
gave a tiny, back-page, UPI account of the memorial service for Sister... whole source
gave a tiny, back-page, UPI account of the memorial service for Sister Dorothy Kazel, featuring the apolitical statement by Bishop Anthony M…
The violence in El Salvador is likely to focus with increasing ferocit... whole source
The violence in El Salvador is likely to focus with increasing ferocity on the Roman Catholic Church.
On September 30, 1981, Ambassador Deane Hinton stated with assurance t... whole source
On September 30, 1981, Ambassador Deane Hinton stated with assurance that the local national guardsmen “were acting on their own,” although…
the prosecutors expressed ignorance of the testimony [in the court rec... whole source
the prosecutors expressed ignorance of the testimony [in the court record] of former guardsman César Valle Espinoza, dated August 9, 1982, w…
They were also ignorant of the statement of former National Guard Serg... whole source
They were also ignorant of the statement of former National Guard Sergeant Dagoberto Martínez, taken by the FBI in Los Angeles, California,…
He refused to go along with this request, with the consequence that on... whole source
He refused to go along with this request, with the consequence that on October 30, 1983, Ibarra was seized by the National Guard and torture…
US-backed coup overthrows Guatemala's Jacobo Arbenz whole source
The modern history of Guatemala was decisively shaped by the U.S.-organized invasion and overthrow of the democratically elected regime of J…
Before looking at the media’s handling of Guatemala, however, let us s... whole source
Before looking at the media’s handling of Guatemala, however, let us step back for a brief review of the crucial period 1945–54 and its sequ…
government.74 “Communism” was found to be in control, or a threat, fro... whole source
government.74 “Communism” was found to be in control, or a threat, from the time trade unions were allowed to organize in 1947, and Arbenz’s…
This is a strong test of the model, as the number of civilians murdere... whole source
This is a strong test of the model, as the number of civilians murdered between 1978 and 1985 may have approached 100,000, with a style of k…
As AI pointed out in 1981: The bodies of the victims have been found ... whole source
As AI pointed out in 1981: The bodies of the victims have been found piled up in ravines, dumped at roadsides or buried in mass graves.
Stanley Rother, the New York Times reported on August 5, 1981, in a ti... whole source
Stanley Rother, the New York Times reported on August 5, 1981, in a tiny back-page article, that three men had been arrested for questioning…
Salvadoran forces kill five Human Rights Commission officials whole source
Between October 1980 and March 1983, five officials of the Human Rights Commission of El Salvador were seized and murdered by the security f…
Guatemalan Archbishop Monsignor Próspero Penados del Barrio asserted i... whole source
Guatemalan Archbishop Monsignor Próspero Penados del Barrio asserted in 1984 that “It is impossible for a human rights office to exist in Gu…
The Association of University Students (AEU) sought information on the... whole source
The Association of University Students (AEU) sought information on the disappeared through the courts in the course of a brief opening in 19…
In an attempt to gain support abroad, two of the remaining leaders of ... whole source
In an attempt to gain support abroad, two of the remaining leaders of GAM, Nineth de García and Herlindo Hideo de Aquino, traveled to Europe…
along with a child, who was tortured) 5 (6.4) 80.0 (6.8) — — — ... whole source
along with a child, who was tortured) 5 (6.4) 80.0 (6.8) — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 The media coverage is for an 18-month period from the tim…
According to two organizers of the Chicago press conference, full info... whole source
According to two organizers of the Chicago press conference, full information on this event was given Steve Greenhouse, the New York Times’s…
Thus, in the Dominican Republic in 1966, and periodically thereafter, ... whole source
Thus, in the Dominican Republic in 1966, and periodically thereafter, the United States organized what have been called “demonstration elect…
The election held in Nicaragua in 1984, by contrast, was intended to l... whole source
The election held in Nicaragua in 1984, by contrast, was intended to legitimize a government that the Reagan administration was striving to…
What makes this another strong test of a propaganda model is that the ... whole source
What makes this another strong test of a propaganda model is that the Salvadoran and Guatemalan elections of 1982 and 1984–85 were held unde…
The Salvadoran and Guatemalan governments could hardly do the same—the... whole source
The Salvadoran and Guatemalan governments could hardly do the same—the Salvadoran government especially had to contend with a negative natio…
El Salvador suspends free speech under state of siege whole source
FREE SPEECH AND ASSEMBLY In El Salvador, the right to free speech and free assembly was legally suspended under a state-of-siege order of Ma…
El Salvador's Decree 507 guts judicial protections whole source
of December 3, 1980, essentially destroyed the judicial system, permitting the armed forces to hold citizens without charge or evidence for…
Free speech and rights of assembly were constrained in Nicaragua in 19... whole source
Free speech and rights of assembly were constrained in Nicaragua in 1984 by social pressures and threats and by a state of siege that had be…
In Nicaragua, in 1984, dissidents were able to speak freely without fe... whole source
In Nicaragua, in 1984, dissidents were able to speak freely without fear of murder, and the LASA group noted that “Every member of our deleg…
El Salvador shuts critical papers La Cronica and El Independiente whole source
FREEDOM OF THE PRESS In El Salvador, the only substantial newspapers critical of the government, La Crónica del Pueblo and El Independiente—…
What makes this especially important is that reporters and observers w... whole source
What makes this especially important is that reporters and observers were unanimous in 1982 that the main thing the public wanted out of the…
The propaganda formula for getting out the vote in 1982 was “ballots v... whole source
The propaganda formula for getting out the vote in 1982 was “ballots versus bullets,” with the implication that ballots were a possible rout…
Duarte joins El Salvador's junta amid crisis whole source
Duarte joined the junta at a moment of severe crisis in March 1980, when all the progressive civilians had left and immediately after the mu…
The law group described Guatemala in 1985 as “a country where the grea... whole source
The law group described Guatemala in 1985 as “a country where the greater part of the people live in permanent fear.”58 In the case of Nicar…
client states: in 1984 its government was not murdering civilians.59 T... whole source
client states: in 1984 its government was not murdering civilians.59 The main fear of ordinary citizens in Nicaragua was of violence by the…
García warns Salvadorans non-voting is treason whole source
Just prior to the March 1982 election, Minister of Defense García warned the population in the San Salvador newspapers that the failure to v…
It was the consensus that the 1984 election for a constituent assembly... whole source
It was the consensus that the 1984 election for a constituent assembly was “encouraging” and an important first step, and that the 1985 pres…
Julio Méndez Montenegro was a civilian president from 1966 to 1970, bu... whole source
Julio Méndez Montenegro was a civilian president from 1966 to 1970, but he did not rule, and he was eventually discredited by the fact that…
that a leftist insurgency “poses a permanent challenge to the regime,”... whole source
that a leftist insurgency “poses a permanent challenge to the regime,” but it did not inquire into the roots of this insurgency or suggest t…
which accurately summarizes the contents, although they contain an und... whole source
which accurately summarizes the contents, although they contain an undercurrent of reserved final judgment.
In what must be one of the low points of his journalistic career, in a... whole source
In what must be one of the low points of his journalistic career, in an article of December 27, 1985 (“Guatemala Vote Heartens Nicaragua Par…
As coauthor of an important book on this topic, Kinzer is well aware o... whole source
As coauthor of an important book on this topic, Kinzer is well aware of the facts.84 The vast majority of Guatemalans are very poor, and the…
described in detail the elaborate electoral preparations in El Salvado... whole source
described in detail the elaborate electoral preparations in El Salvador, the “tamper-proof” procedures, the use of transparent Lucite ballot…
The same problem occurred in the 1984 elections in El Salvador, where ... whole source
The same problem occurred in the 1984 elections in El Salvador, where thin-paper ballots were deposited in transparent ballot boxes.
In Guatemala, 4,000 signatures were needed to qualify in 1984, a large... whole source
In Guatemala, 4,000 signatures were needed to qualify in 1984, a large number and not easy for dissident parties to collect in a society wit…
Neither did Duarte’s acknowledgment in 1981 that “the masses were with... whole source
Neither did Duarte’s acknowledgment in 1981 that “the masses were with the guerrillas” when he joined the junta a year earlier (which would…
and its news columns placed “main opposition” Cruz on center stage, fr... whole source
and its news columns placed “main opposition” Cruz on center stage, from which vantage point he could regularly denounce the proceedings as…
LASA states that “No major political tendency in Nicaragua was denied ... whole source
LASA states that “No major political tendency in Nicaragua was denied access to the electoral process in 1984” (p.
He writes that “Ortega’s landslide victory was never in doubt,” becaus... whole source
He writes that “Ortega’s landslide victory was never in doubt,” because “the opposition was splintered” (and, as he fails to observe, had no…
This deceitful dismissal of the 1984 elections is one of Kinzer’s many... whole source
This deceitful dismissal of the 1984 elections is one of Kinzer’s many contributions to the media campaign to contrast the “elected presiden…
The specific context was the massive media campaign to attribute the f... whole source
The specific context was the massive media campaign to attribute the failures of the Guatemala City peace agreement of August 1987 to the Sa…
TABLE 3–2 Topics Included and Excluded in the New York Times’s Covera... whole source
TABLE 3–2 Topics Included and Excluded in the New York Times’s Coverage of the Nicaraguan Election Planned for November 4, 1984* TOPICS NUMB…
TABLE 3–3 Topics Included and Excluded in the New York Times ’s Cover... whole source
TABLE 3–3 Topics Included and Excluded in the New York Times ’s Coverage of the Nicaraguan Election of November 4, 1984* TOPICS NUMBER OF AR…
THE MIG CRISIS STAGED DURING NICARAGUA’S ELECTION WEEK As Newsweek po... whole source
THE MIG CRISIS STAGED DURING NICARAGUA’S ELECTION WEEK As Newsweek pointed out on November 19, 1984, “The story of the freighter [to Nicarag…
CONCLUDING NOTE As we have seen, electoral conditions in Nicaragua in... whole source
CONCLUDING NOTE As we have seen, electoral conditions in Nicaragua in 1984 were far more favorable than in El Salvador and Guatemala, and th…
Given the earlier similar performance of the mass media in the cases o... whole source
Given the earlier similar performance of the mass media in the cases of the U.S.-sponsored elections in the Dominican Republic in 1966 and V…
On December 1, 1987, the New York Times, in an editorial urging the ad... whole source
On December 1, 1987, the New York Times, in an editorial urging the administration not to betray Haitian Democrats by “shrugging off impover…
With the shooting of the pope, in May 1981, and the eventual charges o... whole source
With the shooting of the pope, in May 1981, and the eventual charges of a KGB-Bulgarian plot, the mass media played a much larger role in or…
Initial Western news reports pointed out that Agca was a wanted crimin... whole source
Initial Western news reports pointed out that Agca was a wanted criminal who had escaped from a Turkish prison in 1979, and that his durable…
First Jonathan Institute conference in Jerusalem whole source
At the first meeting of the Jonathan Institute, in Jerusalem, in July 1979, at which a large Western political and media contingent were pre…
In a variant Sterling version of the timing of his recruitment, Agca w... whole source
In a variant Sterling version of the timing of his recruitment, Agca was hired by the Bulgarians in July 1980, which was still prior to the…
And the further costs in damaged relations with Western Europe—which w... whole source
And the further costs in damaged relations with Western Europe—which were extremely important to the Soviet Union in 1981, with the gas pipe…
missiles in Western Europe a major Soviet concern—would seem to milita... whole source
missiles in Western Europe a major Soviet concern—would seem to militate against taking foolish risks.12 A second problem with the SHK model…
P-2 Masonic lodge scandal breaks in Italy whole source
A P-2 scandal broke in Italy in March 1981, and by August Santovito had been forced to leave SISMI, but the rightist grip on this organizati…
An important feature of Italian politics in the period from 1966 throu... whole source
An important feature of Italian politics in the period from 1966 through 1981 was the protection given by the intelligence services to right…
BM, July/August 1984 whole source
In July 1984, an Italian parliamentary commission published its final report on the P-2 conspiracy, and it and its accompanying volumes of h…
Of the thirty-two news articles on, or closely related to, the plot th... whole source
Of the thirty-two news articles on, or closely related to, the plot that appeared in the New York Times between November 1, 1982, and Januar…
or another Kamm piece entitled “Italian Judge Inspects Apartment of Su... whole source
or another Kamm piece entitled “Italian Judge Inspects Apartment of Suspect in Bulgarian Case” (Jan.
During the years that followed, to the end of the trial in March 1986,... whole source
During the years that followed, to the end of the trial in March 1986, the mass media, with only minor exceptions, adhered closely and uncri…
His manipulative activities in Italy were on such a scale that in the ... whole source
His manipulative activities in Italy were on such a scale that in the summer of 1984 a newly appointed head of SISMI told the Italian parlia…
Only the ABC “20/20” program of May 12, 1983, explored the Soviet moti... whole source
Only the ABC “20/20” program of May 12, 1983, explored the Soviet motive in any depth, despite the constant mass-media reiteration of the SH…
None of them stopped to evaluate Agca’s 1979 letter threatening to kil... whole source
None of them stopped to evaluate Agca’s 1979 letter threatening to kill the pope on his earlier visit to Turkey.
When Agca identified the Bulgarians in November 1982, the integrity of... whole source
When Agca identified the Bulgarians in November 1982, the integrity of the Italian investigative-judicial process in pursuing the case was a…
But this tourist, who apparently looked exactly like Antonov, has neve... whole source
But this tourist, who apparently looked exactly like Antonov, has never been located, and the film from which this shot was taken has unacco…
Wanted for several crimes, Pazienza had fled Italy, and in 1985 he res... whole source
Wanted for several crimes, Pazienza had fled Italy, and in 1985 he resided in exile in New York City.
It was endorsed by the right-wing media-monitoring organization Accura... whole source
It was endorsed by the right-wing media-monitoring organization Accuracy in Media in its hour-long “Vietnam Op/Ed” aired by public televisio…
While dissent and domestic controversy became a focus of media coverag... whole source
While dissent and domestic controversy became a focus of media coverage from 1965, the actual views of dissidents and resisters were virtual…
The harshest critics within the mainstream media, as well as what Corr... whole source
The harshest critics within the mainstream media, as well as what Corry calls “the culture,” held that the war began with “blundering effort…
In his presidential address to the American Historical Association in ... whole source
In his presidential address to the American Historical Association in December 1968, Fairbank characterized the U.S.
Howe explained that “we opposed the war because we believed, as Stanle... whole source
Howe explained that “we opposed the war because we believed, as Stanley Hoffman [sic] has written, that ‘Washington could “save” the people…
Representing the more dovish view, David Fromkin and James Chace asser... whole source
Representing the more dovish view, David Fromkin and James Chace assert without argument that “the American decision to intervene in Indochi…
invasion of Vietnam, in 1965, when there was as yet no debate over the... whole source
invasion of Vietnam, in 1965, when there was as yet no debate over the righteousness of the already massive “intervention,” the United State…
We might ask how we would characterize the Soviet media if the harshes... whole source
We might ask how we would characterize the Soviet media if the harshest condemnation of the war in Afghanistan that could be expressed in th…
In 1947, the State Department noted that Ho had established himself as... whole source
In 1947, the State Department noted that Ho had established himself as “the symbol of nationalism and the struggle for freedom to the overwh…
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution passed by Congress whole source
war, efforts to obtain congressional support succeeded with the August 7, 1964 resolution, after the Tonkin Gulf incident, authorizing the p…
land invasion in 1965, over 150,000 people had been killed in South Vi... whole source
land invasion in 1965, over 150,000 people had been killed in South Vietnam, according to figures cited by Bernard Fall, most of them “under…