threads / conflict #258

28 newly added in the last 14 days mark read

1. c. 1830 new

   Maasai power reaches its height across the Rift

   also in Land and resources, Rift Valley settlement belt: Nakuru, Naivasha, Uasin Gishu and the loaded gun

   In the early and middle nineteenth century the Maa-speaking pastoralists dominated the grasslands from Laikipia south to the Ngong Hills and into what is now northern Tanzania. Their herds, mobility and warrior bands made them the strongest military force in the region. Neighbouring farming peoples paid tribute, traded on Maasai terms or kept out of the plains altogether.

   • Origins of European Settlement in Kenya
   • Squatters and the Roots of Mau Mau, 1905-1963
   • I Say to You: Ethnic Politics and the Kalenjin in Kenya
   • Politically Allocated Land Rights and the Geography of Electoral Violence: The Case of Kenya in the 1990s
   • Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Post Election Violence
   • Ballots to Bullets: Organized Political Violence and Kenya's Crisis of Governance
2. c. 1840 new

   The Iloikop wars break out among the Maa sections

   also in Laikipia and the conservancy frontier: ranches, wildlife, soldiers and pastoralists

   From about the 1840s the Maa-speaking peoples fell into a long series of internal wars, usually called the Iloikop or Kwavi wars. The purely pastoral sections fought the sections that also farmed and kept fixed settlements. These were civil wars over cattle, grazing and water rather than a struggle against outsiders.

   • Moving the Maasai: A Colonial Misadventure
   • Lewa Milele
   • Stealth Game: Community Conservancies Devastate Land & Lives in Northern Kenya
3. c. 1840 new

   The age-set system and the making of the ilmurran

   also in Land and resources

   Maasai men passed together through named age-sets, spending years as ilmurran, the warriors often called moran. Newly circumcised youths became junior warriors and lived apart in a manyatta, a warrior settlement without the usual thorn stockade, where they trained, raided and guarded the herds. Only later did they marry and become elders, bound throughout by loyalty to their age-mates.

4. c. 1850 new

   Eunoto and the graduation of a warrior generation

   also in Land and resources

   The eunoto was the great ceremony that ended a group's years as senior warriors and moved them toward elderhood. Hundreds of moran gathered, shaved their long ochred hair and took on new responsibilities. The rite renewed the age-set cycle that organised Maasai military and social life.

5. c. 1850 new

   Supeet and the rise of the oloibon prophets contested

   also in Land and resources

   The oloibon, often written laibon, was a ritual expert and prophet whose blessings and divination were sought before raids and in times of trouble. Supeet was remembered as a powerful oloibon of the Kisongo section who helped bind scattered Maasai groups behind common war aims. His standing showed how spiritual authority reinforced Maasai military strength.

6. c. 1855 new

   Cattle raiding and the tribute of fear

   also in Land and resources

   The Maasai believed their god had given them all cattle, and raiding neighbours for herds was treated as recovery, not theft. Their reach let them tax caravans, demand hongo tribute and hold farming peoples in check. Early European travellers routinely paid to pass and described the Maasai as the terror of the caravan routes.

7. c. 1870 new

   Mbatian's prophecies at the peak of Maasai strength contested

   also in Land and resources

   Mbatian, son of Supeet, became the most famous Maasai oloibon and was said to have foreseen the coming of iron caravans, cattle disease and strangers from the sea. He guided the Maasai in war and ritual during the last decades of their independence. His death near 1890 was followed by a bitter split between his sons over who inherited his authority.

8. c. 1870 new

   The pastoral Maasai crush and scatter the Kwavi

   By the 1870s the pastoral Maasai had defeated the mixed-farming Iloikop sections, including the Laikipiak and other groups lumped together as Kwavi. The losers were killed, absorbed or driven off their land, and survivors scattered among neighbouring peoples. The pastoral Maasai now held the plains, but at a heavy cost in their own numbers and herds.

9. c. 1878 new

   Civil war leaves the Maasai exposed on the eve of empire

   A generation of fighting among the Maa sections thinned the herds and set section against section just as European powers began pressing inland. The internal wars broke the wider unity that had made the Maasai feared. When disaster and the British arrived within a few years, the Maasai faced them already weakened and divided.

10. c. 1883 new

    Bovine pleuropneumonia reaches the Maasai herds

    In the early 1880s contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, a lung disease of cattle, spread through Maasailand and began killing animals in large numbers. It was the first of the linked disasters the Maasai later remembered as the Emutai, the wiping out. The sickness struck a society whose whole economy and diet rested on healthy herds.

11. c. 1891 new

    The great rinderpest panzootic destroys the cattle contested

    Around 1890 to 1891 the rinderpest panzootic that swept down Africa reached the Maasai and killed the great majority of their cattle in a matter of months. Herds that had numbered in the thousands were reduced to a handful of survivors. Contemporary and later estimates of losses running above ninety percent of the cattle are widely cited but hard to verify precisely.

12. c. 1892 new

    Smallpox sweeps the starving survivors

    With the cattle dead and people weakened by hunger, smallpox spread through the Maasai and killed many who had survived the loss of their herds. The disease hit crowded, desperate camps of people who had lost the means to feed themselves. It deepened a collapse that struck at families, herds and leadership together.

13. c. 1894 new

    Drought and famine complete the Emutai contested

    Drought and famine finished what disease had begun, and the Maasai remembered the whole ordeal as the Emutai. Some accounts, including that of the missionary observers, suggested that a large share of the Maasai died in these years, with figures such as half or two-thirds sometimes quoted. Such death-toll fractions are estimates and remain disputed among historians.

14. c. 1900 new

    Maasai spears turned against the Nandi and Kamba

    also in Land and resources, The Akamba and the fight for independence: cattle, land, and Kapenguria, Ukambani and the Akamba: caravans, cattle, labour and nationalist pressure

    The British recruited Maasai warriors as levies and irregulars in punitive expeditions against neighbours such as the Nandi, Kamba and others who resisted colonial control. In return for cattle taken as loot, Maasai moran did much of the fighting and raiding on Britain's behalf. Their martial tradition was thus used up in the service of the power that would soon dispossess them.

    • The history of settlement, land use, and environment (1890-1990)
    • Decolonization and Independence in Kenya, 1940-93
    • Kenya Railways: History
15. c. 1901 new

    The British install Olonana as their Maasai spokesman contested

    also in Land and resources

    As colonial rule took hold the British backed the oloibon Olonana, also called Lenana, as the leading Maasai authority and treated him as a paramount chief. The Maasai had no single ruler, and Olonana's real power over the many sections was limited. Whether he could truly speak or sign for all the Maasai is disputed, but the British found it convenient to deal through him.

16. August 1904 new

    The 1904 Anglo-Maasai treaty carves out two reserves

    also in Laikipia and the conservancy frontier: ranches, wildlife, soldiers and pastoralists, Land and resources

    In August 1904 an agreement signed for the Maasai by Olonana moved them off the central Rift and into two reserves, a northern one on Laikipia and a southern one near the Tanganyika border, linked by a stock corridor. The document promised the Maasai the reserves for as long as they existed as a people. It also opened the fertile central highlands to European settlement.

    • Moving the Maasai: A Colonial Misadventure
    • Lewa Milele
    • Stealth Game: Community Conservancies Devastate Land & Lives in Northern Kenya
17. 1911 new

    The 1911 removal empties Laikipia for white ranchers

    also in Laikipia and the conservancy frontier: ranches, wildlife, soldiers and pastoralists, Land and resources, Timau: Mount Kenya settler farms, flowers, and the Laikipia edge

    A second agreement in 1911 forced the northern Maasai to leave Laikipia and crowd into an enlarged southern reserve, breaking the promise that the earlier reserves would last as long as the Maasai existed. The move was pushed through so that settlers could take the well-watered Laikipia grasslands for ranches. Driving herds south cost the Maasai many more cattle along the way.

    • Moving the Maasai: A Colonial Misadventure
    • Lewa Milele
    • Stealth Game: Community Conservancies Devastate Land & Lives in Northern Kenya
18. 1913 new

    Ol le Njogo's land suit against the Crown fails

    also in Laikipia and the conservancy frontier: ranches, wildlife, soldiers and pastoralists, Land and resources

    A group of Maasai led by Ol le Njogo went to court in 1913 to challenge the second move and hold Britain to the 1904 promise. The court ruled that the agreement was a treaty between the Crown and the Maasai and so lay outside its jurisdiction, and the case was lost on appeal. The judgment left the Maasai with no legal remedy for the loss of Laikipia.

    • Moving the Maasai: A Colonial Misadventure
    • Lewa Milele
    • Stealth Game: Community Conservancies Devastate Land & Lives in Northern Kenya
19. c. 1915 new

    The ban on raiding dissolves the warrior order

    Confined to the reserves, the Maasai were forbidden to raid or make war, which stripped the ilmurran of their central purpose. Without raiding to rebuild herds or prove themselves, the moran system lost its military meaning and became mostly ceremonial. The pastoral economy that had depended on mobility and cattle exchange was fenced into a shrinking space.

20. c. 1920 new

    Kept 'traditional' behind the reserve line contested

    Colonial policy kept the Maasai isolated in their reserves and discouraged schooling, farming and trade that might change them. Officials and later tourists prized the Maasai as a living picture of an untouched past. Some writers argue this amounted to deliberately freezing the Maasai as a human exhibit, a reading that is contested and that others explain as ordinary neglect and control.

21. 1959 new

    Serengeti and Ngorongoro evictions push the Maasai out

    When the Serengeti National Park was fixed in 1959 the Maasai living inside it were moved out and resettled in the neighbouring Ngorongoro Conservation Area. There they faced tightening limits on grazing and cultivation in the name of protecting wildlife. It began a long pattern in Tanzania of treating Maasai land use as a threat to conservation.

22. 1961 new

    The Maasai Mara reserve takes the northern grasslands

    The Maasai Mara was set aside as a wildlife reserve on the Kenyan side of the Serengeti ecosystem and later enlarged. Grazing was restricted across some of the richest Maasai pasture so that wildlife and tourism could take priority. The reserve became a symbol of how land the Maasai depended on was turned into a protected asset managed largely for outsiders.

23. 1974 new

    Amboseli is fenced off and the Maasai lose the swamps

    The Amboseli basin, long used by Maasai herders for dry-season water and grazing, was gazetted as a national park in 1974. Herders were pushed out of the central swamps and springs that had kept their cattle alive in drought. Promised benefits and water schemes were slow and partial, and the Maasai lost reliable access to a key refuge.

24. c. 1980 new

    Group ranches are subdivided and sold off

    Communal Maasai land held as group ranches was broken up into individual titles from the 1970s and 1980s onward. Subdivision let outsiders and speculators buy up plots, and many Maasai sold or lost land cheaply or through fraud. Fencing and private title cut across the seasonal movement that pastoralism needs, leaving herders with smaller and drier holdings.

25. c. 1990 new

    Tourism sells the Maasai image as the land slips away

    The red shuka, beadwork and jumping dance of the Maasai became a central marketing image for Kenyan and Tanzanian tourism. Yet much of the money from safari lodges and cultural shows flowed to operators and the state rather than to Maasai communities. The Maasai found their identity used as a brand even as they were being pushed off the land that gave it meaning.

26. August 2004 new

    The 2004 centenary protests demand the land back contested

    On the hundredth anniversary of the 1904 agreement, Maasai activists marched and petitioned to demand the return of land taken for settler ranches. Some argued the agreements had been leases of ninety-nine years that had now expired, a legal reading the government and many historians reject. The protests won no land back but put the old dispossession back into public debate.

27. June 2022 new

    The 2022 Loliondo evictions clear land for a game reserve

    In June 2022 Tanzanian authorities moved to demarcate about 1,500 square kilometres of Maasai land at Loliondo as a protected game reserve, near areas used for elite hunting tourism. Security forces clashed with residents, people were injured, and families were pushed off grazing land. Rights groups condemned the operation while the government defended it as conservation.

28. c. 2023 new

    Drought and marginalisation define the Maasai present

    Today many Maasai live with high poverty, shrinking pasture and repeated droughts that kill the cattle their culture still centres on. Land loss to parks, ranches, farms and towns has left herders squeezed and often politically sidelined in Kenya and Tanzania. From a power that once ruled the Rift, the Maasai have become a people fighting to hold on to what land and voice remain.