War of the First Coalition
From 1792 to 1797 the first alliance of European powers fought revolutionary France, a war that ended with French victory and the rise of Napoleon.
Verisoph story dossier
The Napoleonic Wars
The two decades of war that convulsed Europe and remade the world: the French Revolutionary wars, the rise of Napoleon, the great campaigns and coalitions, the invasion of Russia, Waterloo, and the Congress of Vienna that followed.
The two decades of war that convulsed Europe and remade the world: the French Revolutionary wars, the rise of Napoleon, the great campaigns and coalitions, the invasion of Russia, Waterloo, and the Congress of Vienna that followed.
70 newly added in the last 14 days
- new
French Revolutionary Wars Begin
On 20 April 1792 the French Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria, opening more than two decades of conflict between revolutionary France and the monarchies of Europe.
- new
Proclamation of the French First Republic
The National Convention abolished the monarchy on 21 September 1792 and proclaimed the French Republic the next day, ending centuries of Bourbon rule.
- new
Execution of Louis XVI
King Louis XVI was guillotined in Paris on 21 January 1793 after being convicted of treason, an act that hardened the coalition of monarchies against France.
- new
Levee en Masse
A decree of 23 August 1793 conscripted the whole population to the war effort, creating a mass citizen army and pioneering modern national mobilization.
- new
Reign of Terror
From September 1793 to July 1794 the revolutionary government executed tens of thousands of suspected enemies to defend the Republic against internal and foreign threats.
- new
Execution of Marie Antoinette
Former queen Marie Antoinette was guillotined on 16 October 1793 during the height of revolutionary radicalism.
- new
Napoleon's Italian Campaign
Given command of the Army of Italy in 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte won a rapid series of victories over Austrian and Sardinian forces, making his national reputation.
- new
Battle of Lodi
Napoleon forced a crossing of the Adda at Lodi on 10 May 1796, an action that helped build his early legend among his troops.
- new
Battle of Rivoli
On 14 to 15 January 1797 Napoleon crushed an Austrian army at Rivoli, securing French control of northern Italy.
- new
Treaty of Campo Formio
also in Making peace: the great settlements, State, law, and coercion
Peace between revolutionary France and Austria after Napoleon's Italian campaign, with secret clauses trading Venice to Austria and the Rhine frontier to France. It ended the War of the First Coalition.
- new
War of the Second Coalition
From 1798 to 1802 Britain, Russia, Austria and others renewed the war against France, which ended with the Treaty of Amiens.
- new
French Invasion of Egypt
Napoleon landed in Egypt in July 1798 aiming to threaten British trade routes to India, combining military conquest with a large scientific expedition.
- new
Battle of the Pyramids
On 21 July 1798 Napoleon's army defeated the Mamluk forces near Cairo, giving France control of much of Egypt.
- new
The Battle of the Nile
also in The British Empire
Nelson destroyed the French fleet in Egypt, stranding Napoleon's army in the Middle East. The victory secured British control of the Mediterranean sea lanes to India.
- new
Coup of 18 Brumaire
On 9 November 1799 Napoleon overthrew the Directory and established the Consulate, making himself First Consul and effective ruler of France.
- new
Battle of Marengo
Napoleon defeated the Austrians at Marengo on 14 June 1800, securing his political position at home and French dominance in Italy.
- new
Treaty of Amiens
Signed on 25 March 1802, the treaty brought a brief peace between France and Britain that broke down the following year.
- new
Napoleonic Code
Promulgated on 21 March 1804, the French civil code unified private law around equality before the law and property rights, and spread across much of Europe and beyond.
- new
Napoleon Crowned Emperor
On 2 December 1804 Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French at Notre Dame, transforming the Republic into a hereditary empire.
- new
War of the Third Coalition
In 1805 Britain, Austria, Russia and others allied against France, a war that ended in decisive French victories on land despite naval defeat at sea.
- new
Battle of Ulm
Between 16 and 20 October 1805 Napoleon encircled and forced the surrender of an entire Austrian army at Ulm with minimal fighting.
- new
The Battle of Trafalgar
also in Armies and navies: the machinery of war, Military and security, Pax Britannica and the primacy of the Royal Navy, The British Empire
Nelson's fleet crushed a combined French and Spanish force off the Spanish coast. The victory gave Britain command of the seas for a century, though Nelson died in the battle.
- new
Battle of Austerlitz
On 2 December 1805 Napoleon defeated a larger combined Austrian and Russian army at Austerlitz, widely regarded as his tactical masterpiece.
- new
Treaty of Pressburg
Signed on 26 December 1805 after Austerlitz, the treaty forced Austria out of the Third Coalition and stripped it of territory and influence.
- new
War of the Fourth Coalition
From 1806 to 1807 Prussia and Russia fought France, a war marked by the rapid collapse of Prussia and hard-fought battles in Poland and East Prussia.
- new
Confederation of the Rhine
On 12 July 1806 Napoleon organized a bloc of German states allied to France, reshaping the political map of central Europe.
- new
Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire
On 6 August 1806 Francis II dissolved the Holy Roman Empire under French pressure, ending a political structure that had lasted roughly a thousand years.
- new
Battle of Jena-Auerstedt
In twin battles on 14 October 1806 French forces shattered the Prussian army, leading to the swift occupation of Prussia.
- new
Continental System
The Berlin Decree of 21 November 1806 launched Napoleon's blockade of British trade across Europe, an economic strategy that strained France's allies and neutrals.
- new
Battle of Eylau
Fought on 7 to 8 February 1807 in winter conditions, this bloody and inconclusive clash with the Russians was one of Napoleon's costliest battles.
- new
Battle of Friedland
On 14 June 1807 Napoleon decisively defeated the Russian army at Friedland, forcing Russia to negotiate peace.
- new
Treaties of Tilsit
also in Making peace: the great settlements, State, law, and coercion
Peace treaties between Napoleon and Russia, then Prussia, concluded on a raft on the Neman River. Secret articles divided Europe into French and Russian spheres and stripped Prussia of half its territory.
- new
Peninsular War
From 1808 to 1814 French forces fought Spanish, Portuguese and British armies in Spain and Portugal, a draining conflict that popularized guerrilla warfare and bled French strength.
- new
Dos de Mayo Uprising
On 2 May 1808 the people of Madrid rose against French occupation, a revolt whose brutal suppression helped ignite the wider Spanish resistance.
- new
Battle of Bailen
In July 1808 a Spanish army forced the surrender of a French corps at Bailen, the first major open field defeat of Napoleonic France and a blow to its prestige.
- new
War of the Fifth Coalition
In 1809 Austria again went to war against France, a conflict decided in the Danube valley within months.
- new
Battle of Corunna
On 16 January 1809 a British army fought a rearguard action at Corunna to cover its evacuation from Spain after a hard winter retreat.
- new
Battle of Aspern-Essling
On 21 to 22 May 1809 the Austrians under Archduke Charles checked Napoleon near Vienna, inflicting his first clear personal defeat in a major battle.
- new
Battle of Wagram
On 5 to 6 July 1809 Napoleon defeated the Austrian army at Wagram in a huge battle that ended the War of the Fifth Coalition.
- new
Treaty of Schonbrunn
Signed on 14 October 1809, the treaty imposed harsh terms on Austria and further extended French influence in Europe.
- new
Marriage of Napoleon and Marie Louise
In April 1810 Napoleon married Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria, a dynastic alliance meant to secure an heir and tie France to a former enemy.
- new
French Invasion of Russia
On 24 June 1812 Napoleon led a vast multinational army across the Niemen into Russia, beginning a campaign that would destroy most of his force.
- new
Battle of Borodino
On 7 September 1812 the French and Russian armies fought a massive and bloody battle near Moscow, one of the deadliest single days of the wars.
- new
French Occupation and Fire of Moscow
French forces entered a largely abandoned Moscow on 14 September 1812, and much of the city burned, leaving Napoleon without the decisive victory he sought.
- new
Crossing of the Berezina
Between 26 and 29 November 1812 the remnants of the French army fought across the Berezina under Russian attack, a desperate escape that became a symbol of the catastrophic retreat.
- new
Battle of Vitoria
On 21 June 1813 an allied army under Wellington broke French power in Spain at Vitoria, effectively ending French rule in the peninsula.
- new
Battle of Dresden
On 26 to 27 August 1813 Napoleon won a major victory at Dresden, one of his last significant successes before the tide turned decisively.
- new
Battle of Leipzig
Fought from 16 to 19 October 1813 and known as the Battle of the Nations, this was the largest battle of the era, ending in a decisive allied victory that drove France out of Germany.
- new
Capture of Paris
On 30 to 31 March 1814 allied armies entered Paris after the collapse of French defenses, forcing Napoleon's political downfall.
- new
First Abdication of Napoleon
On 6 April 1814 Napoleon abdicated unconditionally at Fontainebleau, ending the First Empire and his rule over France.
- new
Napoleon's Exile to Elba
In May 1814 Napoleon arrived on the Mediterranean island of Elba, where he was given nominal sovereignty as a defeated emperor.
- new
First Treaty of Paris
Signed on 30 May 1814, the treaty ended the war with a restored Bourbon France and set generous terms ahead of the Congress of Vienna.
- new
Congress of Vienna
also in Making peace: the great settlements, State, law, and coercion
Conference of the powers that defeated Napoleon, redrawing the map of Europe and restoring a balance of power. Its Final Act of June 1815 shaped the European order for a century.
- new
War of the Seventh Coalition
In 1815 the allied powers united once more to defeat Napoleon after his return from Elba, a campaign settled at Waterloo.
- new
Napoleon's Return from Elba
On 1 March 1815 Napoleon landed in southern France after escaping Elba, beginning the period known as the Hundred Days as he retook power without a shot.
- new
German Confederation Established
On 8 June 1815 the Congress of Vienna created a loose confederation of German states to replace the vanished Holy Roman Empire.
- new
Battle of Ligny
On 16 June 1815 Napoleon defeated a Prussian army at Ligny, his last victory, though the Prussians withdrew in good order to fight again days later.
- new
Battle of Quatre Bras
On 16 June 1815 an allied force under Wellington held the crossroads at Quatre Bras against a French attack, shaping the campaign that led to Waterloo.
- new
Battle of Waterloo
also in Hinges of history
Allied armies under Wellington and Blucher defeat Napoleon, ending his rule for good. The victory closes a quarter century of revolutionary wars and opens a century of relative great-power peace in Europe.
- new
Second Abdication of Napoleon
On 22 June 1815 Napoleon abdicated a second time after the defeat at Waterloo, ending the Hundred Days.
- new
Holy Alliance
also in Alliances and battle lines, State, law, and coercion
Pact among Russia, Austria, and Prussia framing post-Napoleonic order in Christian terms and defending monarchical rule. It became a symbol of conservative reaction in Europe.
- new
Napoleon's Exile to Saint Helena
In October 1815 Napoleon arrived on the remote South Atlantic island of Saint Helena, where the British held him in captivity for the rest of his life.
- new
Second Treaty of Paris
Signed on 20 November 1815 after Waterloo, the treaty imposed stricter terms on France, including an indemnity and reduced borders.
- new
Concert of Europe
After 1815 the great powers cooperated through periodic congresses to manage disputes and preserve the balance of power, keeping general peace for decades.
- new
Rise of European Nationalism
The revolutionary and Napoleonic era spread ideas of popular sovereignty and national identity that fueled nationalist movements across nineteenth century Europe.
- new
Transformation of Modern Warfare
Mass conscription, the corps system and large scale mobilization pioneered in these wars reshaped military organization and strategy for the following century.
- new
Death of Napoleon
Napoleon died in exile on Saint Helena on 5 May 1821, closing the life of one of history's most influential military and political figures.