Events, Verisoph

1945 1945: f the significance of the new electronic machines.” 20 The same was tr rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story f the significance of the new electronic machines.” 20 The same was true of Hopper when she visited ENIAC in 1945. It seemed to her that the Mark I wa ●●

1945 1945: Over the ensuing years, at patent trials and conferences, in books and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Over the ensuing years, at patent trials and conferences, in books and dueling historical papers, there would be debates over who deserved the most cr ●●

1945 1945: ute the origination of ideas discussed in a group. Upon hearing that, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ute the origination of ideas discussed in a group. Upon hearing that, Eckert is said to have responded, “Really?” 58 The benefits and drawbacks of von ●●

1945 1945: aft of a Report on the EDVAC, by John von Neumann.” Goldstine used a m rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story aft of a Report on the EDVAC, by John von Neumann.” Goldstine used a mimeograph machine to produce twenty-four copies, which he distributed at the end ●●

1945 1945: CHAPTER EIGHT THE PERSONAL COMPUTER “AS WE MAY THINK” The idea of a pe rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story CHAPTER EIGHT THE PERSONAL COMPUTER “AS WE MAY THINK” The idea of a personal computer, one that ordinary individuals could get their hands on and take ●●

1945 1945: ake home, was envisioned in 1945 by Vannevar Bush. After building his rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ake home, was envisioned in 1945 by Vannevar Bush. After building his big analog computer at MIT and helping to create the military-industrial-academi ●●

1945 1945: Felsenstein’s community-organizing streak and love for electronics wer rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Felsenstein’s community-organizing streak and love for electronics were instilled as a child in Philadelphia, where he was born in 1945. His father wa ●●

1945 1945: Wikipedia took the world another step closer to the vision propounded rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Wikipedia took the world another step closer to the vision propounded by Vannevar Bush in his 1945 essay, “As We May Think,” which predicted, “Wholly ●●

1945 1945: k to and how, and that human element goes into it.” 168 In his seminal rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story k to and how, and that human element goes into it.” 168 In his seminal 1945 essay “As We May Think,” Vannevar Bush had set forth the challenge: “The s ●●

1945 Event of 1945 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story tered a contest over the European balance of power. At the edge of defeat, with Russian armies at the gates of Berlin, Frederick was saved by the sudden death of Catherine the Great. The new Czar, a longtime admirer of Frederick, withdrew from the wa ●●

1945 After the first successful atomic test in July 1945 in the deserts of New Mexico, J candidate ai_extracted 2 cit. no story major powers labored to achieve mastery of the atom and with it the ability to release its energy. The American effort, known as the Manhattan Project and drawing on the best minds from the United States, Britain, and the European diaspora, prevailed ●●

1945 Shannon completes classified cryptography report ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ted, “a secrecy system is almost identical with a noisy communication system. ”♦ (He completed his report, “A Mathematical Theory of Cryptography,” in 1945; it was immediately classified. ●●

1945 Von Neumann assembles computer team at Princeton IAS ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In late 1945, at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, Hungarian American mathematician John von Neumann gathered a small group o ●●

1945 Tukey shortly after he joined von Neumann’s project in Novem rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Tukey shortly after he joined von Neumann’s project in November of 1945 ●●

1945 who is extremely grateful for the increase in his salary rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “Professor Earle, who is extremely grateful for the increase in his salary, has been driven by his conscience to raise the uneasy question as to wheth ●●

1945 such a pure and ivory-towerish mathematician would show so m rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “The pure mathematicians claimed that he had become a theoretical physicist; the theoretical physicists looked at him as a great help and advisor in a ●●

1945 y like Fermi of the importance of numerical calculation the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story I just don’t believe any of us could have gone and persuaded somebody like Fermi of the importance of numerical calculation the way von Neumann could. ●●

1945 “I propose to store everything that has to be remembered by rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “I propose to store everything that has to be remembered by the machine, in these memory organs,” he explained to Weaver in an eleven-page letter in e ●●

1945 do not recognize at present because they are farthest remove rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Indeed they are by definition those which we do not recognize at present because they are farthest removed from … our present sphere.”66 Strauss, who ●●

1945 ons of weather data projected on a screen and then compute t rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “I remember in late 1945 or early 1946 reading a rather fantastic proposal of Zworykin’s for the construction of an analogue computer which would scan ●●

1945 “Statistical questions will be amenable to an entirely new k rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “Statistical questions will be amenable to an entirely new kind of treatment,” von Neumann had explained in January of 1945, while the ENIAC was still ●●

1945 John von Neumann to Warren Weaver, November 2, 1945, RF; M rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John von Neumann to Warren Weaver, November 2, 1945, RF; M ●●

1945 11.2 National Center for Atmospheric Research National Def rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Nagasaki, atomic bombing of (August 9, 1945), 4.1, 7.1, 10.1, 11.1, 11.2 National Center for Atmospheric Research National Defense Research Committe ●●

1945 Louis Democrat in 1872 yielded $456,000; and city newspapers were sell... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Louis Democrat in 1872 yielded $456,000; and city newspapers were selling at from $6 to $18 million in the 1920s.8 The cost of machinery alone, of even very small newspapers, has for many decades run ●●

1945 Before looking at the media’s handling of Guatemala, however, let us s... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Before looking at the media’s handling of Guatemala, however, let us step back for a brief review of the crucial period 1945–54 and its sequel to set the stage for an examination of the media’s role i ●●

1945 Event of 1945 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story One of the most battered nations, Japan, grew by two and a half million people between 1940 and 1945 ●●

1945 ge of what Germany was doing, would claim rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ge of what Germany was doing, would claim they only discovered Hitler’s merciless anti-Semitic and political repression, as well as the Reich’s fascist medical programs, after the Allies triumphed in 1945. But in truth, Hitler’s atrocities against Jews and others were chronicled daily on the pages o ●●

1945 .65 Within a month of the publication of rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story .65 Within a month of the publication of “Genocide-A Modern Crime,” the Third Reich fell. Lemkin’s codified principles of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity became pivotal. In August of 1945, the victorious Allies met in London and chartered an international military tribunal to bring ●●

1945 Japan announces acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration ai_extracted 1 cit. no story There were a number of important legal steps leading up to this result, including the August 16, 1945, announcement by the emperor that Japan had accepted the Potsdam Declaration and unconditional surrender, and the Imperial Rescript of January 1, 19 ●●

1945 The Politics of the Prussian Army, 1640–1945 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Politics of the Prussian Army, 1640–1945. ●●

1945 Perhaps most of all, the turn against socio-economic analysis has been motivated by a sense of ennui rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Perhaps most of all, the turn against socio-economic analysis has been motivated by a sense of ennui, the impression that there is simply nothing new to say, that all the major questions were answered by the first two generations of historians and so ●●

1945 This point emerges very clearly from the soul-searching that went on after the war on the part of Dr rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This point emerges very clearly from the soul-searching that went on after the war on the part of Dr Georg von Schnitzler, second in command at IG until 1945.™ In an affidavit he composed in the desperate monthsprior to his trial at Nuremberg, Schnit ●●

1945 CHINA 1945 to 1960s David rejected ai_extracted 4 cit. no story CHINA 1945 to 1960s David Barrett, Dixie Mission: The United States Army Observer Group in Yenan, 1944 (Center for Chinese Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1970), passim; R ●●

1945 And the policies score- card rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story And the policies score- card reads as follows: From 1945 to 2003, the United States attempted to overthrow more than 40 foreign governments, and to crush more than 30 populist-nationalist movements fighting against intolerable regimes ●●

1945 Korea 1945-1953 Was it all rejected ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Korea 1945-1953 Was it all that it appeared to be ●●

1945 The prospect of an escalated rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The prospect of an escalated war led the US 24 China 1945 to 1960s later to have second thoughts and to ask Chiang to abandon the islands, but he then refused ●●

1945 While com-batting the Japanese during rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story While com-batting the Japanese during 1945, the American military took many measures aimed at quashing this resistance army, the Huks (a shortening of Hukbalahap—‘“People’s Army Against Japan” in Tagalog) ●●

1945 ELAS agrees to armistice in Greece ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In mid-January 1945 ELAS agreed to an armistice, one that had much of the appear-ance and the effect of a surrender ●●

1945 Whatever actually lay behind the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Whatever actually lay behind the announcement, it is evident that very little reliance, if any, can be placed upon statements made by the South Korean government con- cerning the start of the war.4 46 Korea 1945-1953 There were, in fact, reports in ●●

1945 This story arose to explain rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This story arose to explain the fact that as many as 30 percent of American POWs had collaborated with the enemy in one way or D2 Korea 1945-1953 another, and “one man in every seven, or more than thirteen per cent, was guilty of serious collaborati ●●

1945 In 1945, former Secretary of rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1945, former Secretary of State Dean Acheson has written, official American policy was explicitly “to bring home to the Germans that they could not escape the suffering they had brought upon themselves .. ●●

1945 For further discussion of the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story For further discussion of the UN’s bias at this time see Jon Halliday, “The United Nations and Korea”, in Frank Baldwin, ed., Without Parallel: The American-Korean Relationship Since 1945 (New York, 1974), pp ●●

1945 Patrick Seale, The Struggle for rejected ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Patrick Seale, The Struggle for Syria: A Study of Post-War Arab Politics, 1945-1958 (London, 1965) pp ●●

1945 US Department of Defense, United rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story US Department of Defense, United States - Vietnam Relations, 1945-67 (the government edition of the Pentagon Papers) book 2, IV, A.5, tab 4, p ●●

1945 Gary school desegregation strike ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Levenda describes the Gary School Strike in fall 1945, where high school students boycotted classes over desegregation plans. He notes his father Leonard Levenda was considered a leader of the boycott. ●●

1945 Vannevar Bush publishes 'As We May Think' ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Bush's essay imagined the memex, a personal machine for storing and linking information. ●●

1945 ENIAC becomes fully operational ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After a year of construction, ENIAC becomes fully operational, able to perform five thousand additions per second. ●●

1945 Vannevar Bush delivers Science, the Endless Frontier ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bush's report to the president argues for government funding of basic research through universities and industry, shaping postwar American science policy. ●●

1945 German financial monopoly is broken up after defeat in 1945 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Nkrumah notes that German financial monopoly, having already been battered by the 1918 redivision of the colonial world, took a second beating with Germany's defeat at the end of the Second World War. ●●

1945 World Federation of Trade Unions founded ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Out of the euphoria of the anti-fascist victory, the World Federation of Trade Unions was formed, uniting nearly all of world labour outside the American Federation of Labor. ●●

20 November 1945 to 1946 Nuremberg trials of Nazi leaders 1 cit. An international military tribunal tries surviving Nazi leaders for crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. Twelve defendants are sentenced to death, and the trials establish that following orders is no defense and shape modern international law. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

1945 Moi trains as a teacher at Tambach 1 cit. After Kapsabet, Moi trained for teaching at Tambach Teachers Training College in Keiyo. Teacher training made him a colonial-era African professional: still subordinate to the colonial state, but positioned above most rural Africans in literacy, church standing, and administrative usefulness. politics / society ●●●

1945 Africans are admitted into cooperatives and controlled cash crops 2 cit. The 1945 Cooperative Societies Ordinance opened formal cooperative membership to indigenous Kenyans and allowed entry into cash crops such as coffee under official supervision. This was a controlled opening. The state did not simply hand farmers freedom; it built an inspected, registered channel through which African production could be financed, watched, graded and marketed. economy / politics / society ●●●●

c. 1946 Purge of the zaibatsu families ai_extracted 1 cit. Under the U.S. occupation the zaibatsu owners were forced to sell their stocks to the public, holding companies were banned entirely until 1998, and zaibatsu leaders were purged and prohibited from further business activity. ●●●●

1946 Ichimada appointed Bank of Japan governor ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1946, with the approval of the U.S. occupation, Hisato Ichimada, a Bank of Japan official trained in credit creation who had studied Schacht's Reichsbank in Berlin, was appointed BoJ governor. ●●●

August 1946 to 1952 Economic Stabilization Board established ai_extracted 1 cit. The wartime Cabinet Planning Board was revived as the powerful but short-lived Economic Stabilization Board, established in August 1946 and lasting until 1952, to direct postwar funding of the economy. ●●●

March 1946 Bank of Japan freezes loan balances ai_extracted 1 cit. The Bank of Japan's Banking Department instructed that banks could not in principle increase their outstanding loan balances beyond the level of 20 March 1946 without a permit from the Bank of Japan and the government, blocking low-priority claims on scarce resources. ●●

June 1946 Araki indicted by war crimes prosecutors and resigns ai_extracted 1 cit. In June 1946 BoJ governor Araki was indicted by war crimes prosecutors and had to resign, whereupon Hisato Ichimada took over as governor. ●●

June 1946 to December 1954 Ichimada rules the BoJ for eight and a half years ai_extracted 1 cit. Hisato Ichimada, known as 'the Pope,' controlled the economy as Bank of Japan governor from June 1946 to December 1954 through his decrees on who would receive money. ●●●

October 1946 to 1952 Temporary Materials Ordinance and Price Control Ordinance ai_extracted 1 cit. In October 1946 occupied Japan enforced the Temporary Materials Ordinance, and in the same year the Price Control Ordinance revived and strengthened the wartime price-fixing system through the new Price Agency; both were undone in 1952. ●●●

1946 Nationalization of the Bank of England ai_extracted 1 cit. The British Labour government nationalized the Bank of England in 1946, following the earlier nationalization of the German Reichsbank. ●●●

9 December 1946 to 1947 Nuremberg Doctors' Trial exposes medical crimes 1 cit. Allied courts tried Nazi doctors for murder and torture carried out in the name of racial hygiene. The trial produced the Nuremberg Code on medical ethics and helped discredit eugenics worldwide. politics / science ●●●

c. 1 January 1946 School of the Americas is founded 1 cit. The US Army opened the School of the Americas to train Latin American soldiers, later moving it to Fort Benning, Georgia. Thousands of graduates went on to serve in militaries that carried out coups and human rights abuses. politics / war ●●●●

1946 Bank of England nationalized ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Labour government nationalized the Bank of England in 1946, yet Quigley notes the old merchant bankers retained some of their dominant influence over it even afterward. ●●

1946 Marshall Plan aid to Western Europe ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley lists US economic and technical aid, beginning with the Marshall Plan, as one of the three forces behind postwar Western European growth, along with financial techniques and Common Market integration. ●●

1946 Clay halts reparations to the Soviet zone ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On 3 May 1946 General Lucius Clay told the Russians the U.S. would ship no more West German industrial equipment as reparations until they treated Germany as an economic unit. ●●

1946 United States credit to Britain ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In July 1946 the United States provided Britain a credit of $3,750 million at 2 percent to tide over its postwar balance-of-payments deficit until exports could recover. ●●

1946 McMahon Act creates the Atomic Energy Commission ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The atomic scientists' lobbying pushed the McMahon bill to signature in August 1946, setting up a five-member civilian Atomic Energy Commission with control of all fissionable material. ●●

1946 Baruch Plan for international atomic control ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Presented to the UN on 14 June 1946, the Baruch Plan offered to place all uranium and nuclear facilities under an international control body free of the Great Power veto. ●●

1946 Arrest and acquittal of Lieutenant Redin ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley uses the March 1946 arrest of Soviet Lieutenant Redin, later acquitted, as an early example of 'atomic spy' cases built on false press claims. ●●

1946 Irgun bombs the King David Hotel ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After Britain refused admission of 100,000 refugees and moved to arrest the Jewish Agency, the Irgun Zvai Le'umi exploded 500 pounds of TNT under the British headquarters in the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, killing nearly a hundred people. The attack marked rising extremist influence within the Zionist movement. ●●

1946 SCAP issues Japan's postwar constitution ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The constitution issued by SCAP in 1946 provided for a prime minister chosen by the 467 members of the House of Representatives, elected by universal adult suffrage. The multi-member district system ensured minority representation and encouraged party coalitions. ●●

1946 Quigley: the Group's last public act, the Italo-Yugoslav boundary ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley names the drawing of the Italo-Yugoslav boundary as the Milner Group's last important public act, carried out by All Souls figures on the Boundary Commission. ●●

1946 Schacht acquitted at Nuremberg ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the Nuremberg trials, Schacht and von Papen were acquitted because their involvement with the Nazi regime had ended before the war. Schacht was rearrested under Bavaria's de-Nazification laws and finally freed in 1950. ●●

1946 Death of John Maynard Keynes ai_extracted 2 cit. Two years after Bretton Woods, Keynes's heart gave out and he died at the age of sixty-one. His wartime efforts had severely damaged his health. ●●

1946 Whatever the truth on that rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Whatever the truth on that point is, it is clear that Vlasov and ten of his senior officers were tried for treason in Moscow during the summer of 1946. On August 12 the Soviet radio announced that “all of the accused admitted their guilt and were condemned to death. ●●

1946 By 1946 these groups had candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1946 these groups had been convicted as organizational perpetrators of war crimes and crimes against humanity by the Nuremberg tribunal, and the earlier assertion of criminality had taken on the force of international law. But Gehlen’s reassurances on the SS issue proved to be false. ●●

1946 Walter Rauff escapes the Rimini POW camp ai_extracted 1 cit. no story According to the Wiesenthal report, Rauff was interned at the Rimini POW camp for about eighteen months after the war but succeeded in slipping away under mysterious circumstances in December 1946. ●●

1946 4 Despite the official ban rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 4 Despite the official ban on hiring ex-Nazis, however, the Labor Service divisions began recruiting Waffen SS volunteers at least as early as 1946. ●●

1946 First Latvian labor company formed under Skaistlauks ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The first Latvian labor company, for example, was created on June 27, 1946, under the command of Voldemars Skaistlauks, a former Latvian SS general. All six of his top lieutenants in the U. ●●

1946 *Perhaps the most dramatic single rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story *Perhaps the most dramatic single escape through church channels was the 1946 deliverance of an entire Ukrainian Waffen SS division— some 11,000 men, plus many of their families—with the personal assistance of Pope Pius XII. ●●

1946 Operations—Pincher,” June 18, 1946 (top secret), cited in Evangelis... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Operations—Pincher,” June 18, 1946 (top secret), cited in Evangelista’s study. 8. ●●

1946 Army CIC Special Agent Leo J. Pagmotta in December 1946 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Army CIC Special Agent Leo J. Pagmotta in December 1946 in connection with Operation Circle, an investigation into a mass escape of prisoners from the Rimini POW camp north of Rome... ●●

1946 “Die Behandlung des russichen Problems wahrend der Zeit des nationa... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “Die Behandlung des russichen Problems wahrend der Zeit des national-sozialistischen Regimes in Deutschland,” typescript, n.d. (1946?). Burnham, James. ●●

1946 Case No. 4111, CIC Rome Detachment, Zone Five, December 26 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Case No. 4111, CIC Rome Detachment, Zone Five, December 26 (?), 1946, (secret). Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists. ●●

1946 FBI warns Truman that White leaked to Soviets ai_extracted 2 cit. no story In 1946, the FBI alerted President Truman that Treasury official Harry Dexter White had passed secret intelligence to the Soviet Union. White was removed from consideration as IMF leader but retained his position as an executive director. ●●

1946 Bretton Woods delegates reconvene at Savannah ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In March 1946, Bretton Woods delegates reconvened at Savannah, Georgia, to finalize and ratify the international monetary agreement. By then Cold War tensions were rising and Soviet-American cooperation had collapsed. ●●

1946 Souers named first Central Intelligence Group director ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Truman appointed Admiral Souers as director of the Central Intelligence Group, though Truman treated the appointment with ceremonial mockery. ●●

1946 Wisner's Romanian spy network destroyed by Soviets ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Wisner learned his Romanian intelligence network had been destroyed by the Soviet regime, with most agents imprisoned or dead. ●●

1946 Victoria oat variety wiped out by crown rust ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Victoria oat variety, bred to resist crown rust fungus and planted throughout the United States in 1940, succumbed to a devastating epidemic in 1946. ●●

1946 In 1946, he married a rejected ai_extracted 2 cit. no story In 1946, he married a tall, funny, formidably blunt lady named Wilma Shannon. On Jewish holidays, he was always in a quandary about whether to work... ●●

1946 As he had since 1946, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As he had since 1946, he continued to insist upon diversification, and in 1964 Mercury Securities added the British Gallup Poll firm to its portfolio... ●●

1946 In addition (1946) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the Brandeis, Goldschmidt sale, he became a deeply depressed person, something of a misfit. In the drab atmosphere of 1946 Britain, he couldn’t ... ●●

1946 On January 29 (1946) candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 29, 1946, The Times of London ran a minute three-line notice on the bottom of page seven. It said in its entirety: “The name of the New Tra... ●●

1946 CHAPTER 39––Our Aryan At the end of World War II (1946) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “He was very constructive—always seeing the positive in life.”2 With Eric’s long history as a ladies’ man, Max and Alice pressed him to wrap things up... ●●

1946 1946 European rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As early as April 1946 the State Department was urging the need to give support to “the United Kingdom and the communications of the British Commonwealth.”110 The growing acceptanc... ●●

1946 1946 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story They were also aware that Moscow, in its turn, had been less than wholehearted in its support of the Chinese Communist Party and had, even as late as 1946 and 1948, tried to balanc... ●●

1946 13. AD. Box 27, letter from Eric Warburg rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 13. AD. Box 27, letter from Eric Warburg, October 3, 1946. ●●

1946 Hitler's spymaster goes to work for the CIA 1 cit. Reinhard Gehlen, the Nazi army's chief of intelligence on the Eastern Front, is put in charge of a US-funded spy network against the Soviets, which becomes West Germany's intelligence service. The West rebuilt its Cold War espionage on a Nazi foundation. politics / war ●●●●

1946 Quoted in Elliott Roosevelt, As He Saw It (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1946), pp rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quoted in Elliott Roosevelt, As He Saw It (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1946), pp. ●●