Events, Verisoph

April 1960 Finance Minister Sato declines to revise the BoJ Law ai_extracted 1 cit. In April 1960 the new finance minister Eisaku Sato declared that with two conflicting committee recommendations he could not introduce legislation to change the BoJ Law, leaving MoF's legal supremacy over the central bank intact. ●●●

1960 Ikeda becomes prime minister with the income doubling plan ai_extracted 1 cit. Hayato Ikeda became prime minister in 1960 and made the income doubling plan his cabinet's major policy aim, with fiscal expenditures rising more than 25 percent per year on the back of high growth. ●●●

1960 U.S.-Japan Security Treaty pushed through the Diet ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1960 Prime Minister Kishi pushed the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty through the Diet despite severe public opposition, having police remove opposing politicians; the treaty was ratified at the cost of his career. ●●●●

1960 The laser 1 cit. Theodore Maiman built the first working laser, producing a narrow, intense beam of coherent light. Lasers now drive fiber optics, surgery, manufacturing, scanners and data storage. science / technology ●●●●

1960 The Year of Africa 2 cit. Seventeen African colonies gained independence in a single year, most of them French. It marked the high point of the post-war wave of decolonization on the continent. politics ●●●●

1960 Quigley: I have studied this network for twenty years ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley states he knows the international Anglophile network, which he identifies as the Round Table Groups, because he studied it for twenty years and was allowed in the early 1960s to examine its papers and secret records. ●●

1960 Forced collectivization of East German agriculture ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In three months, February-April 1960, almost a million East German farmers were forced into fewer than 20,000 collective farms by violence and social pressure. As in Stalin's Russia, the result was a collapse of agricultural production. ●●

1960 Mikoyan trade agreement draws Cuba toward the USSR ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The long visit of Soviet Deputy Premier Anastas Mikoyan in February 1960 forced a US reconsideration of its nonintervention policy toward Cuba. The agreement promised Cuba petroleum and arms for its sugar and led toward Soviet diplomatic ties. ●●

1960 Soviet advisers withdrawn from China, 1960 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the summer of 1960 the Soviet Union pulled almost all its technical and military advisers out of China. Quigley marks this as a major step in the deepening Sino-Soviet rift. ●●

1960 Independence of Nigeria, 1960 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Nigeria, the largest British colonial territory with 35 million people, did not become free until 1960, its delay caused by deep internal divisions among its three regions. ●●

1960 Independence of the Mali Republic, 1960 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Senegal and the Sudanese Republic, briefly joined as the Mali Republic, won independence in April 1960, setting off a flood of declarations of independence across French Africa. ●●

1960 Formation of the Brazzaville Twelve, 1960 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In December 1960 twelve French-oriented African states formed the Brazzaville Twelve, a moderate, pro-French bloc for cooperation in Africa and at the United Nations. ●●

1960 De Gaulle forces through French nuclear force bill, 1960 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In November-December 1960 De Gaulle used Article 49 to create an independent French nuclear force without letting the Assembly debate or vote on the bill, despite an apparent majority against it. ●●

1960 School administrators grow far faster than students, 1960-1990 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites figures that from 1960 to 1990 student population rose 61 percent while the number of school administrators grew 342 percent. ●●

1960 Gatto's figure on Black two-parent households in New York, 1960 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto argues that in 1960, 85 percent of African American children in New York lived in intact two-parent households, a share he claims fell sharply as schools and welfare bureaucracies expanded. ●●

1960 U-2 spy plane shot down over the Soviet Union ai_extracted 1 cit. A CIA U-2 was downed deep inside Russia and its pilot, Francis Gary Powers, was captured alive. The incident wrecked a planned summit and exposed American cover stories. ●●

1960 Eisenhower says he would like to resign after U-2 lies ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Confronted with the collapse of the U-2 cover story, Eisenhower privately said he wished to resign. The episode ended the doctrine of plausible deniability. ●●

1960 Eisenhower orders Lumumba eliminated ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At a National Security Council meeting, President Eisenhower directed that Congolese prime minister Patrice Lumumba be killed. The order was recalled years later in secret Senate testimony. ●●

1960 Kennedy defeats Nixon by a razor-thin margin ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John Kennedy narrowly won the 1960 presidential election. Nixon blamed the CIA for his defeat. ●●

1960 December 11, 1960. Report of Alexander’s death is based on rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story December 11, 1960. Report of Alexander’s death is based on Dennis Hayes (president, Foreign Service Association) interview, July 8, 1983. ●●

1960 In 1960, Lodge was Richard Nixon’s running mate on the rejected ai_extracted 2 cit. no story In 1960, Lodge was Richard Nixon’s running mate on the Republican ticket that Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson defeated (1960) ●●

1960 In 1960, groups of soldiers and young officers seized two candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1960, groups of soldiers and young officers seized two mid-size barracks in a coordinated uprising (1960) ●●

1960 2 per cent of gross domestic product to 10 per cent in 1960, 13 per rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 2 per cent of gross domestic product to 10 per cent in 1960, 13 per cent in 1970 and nearly 17 per cent in 1980, more than 6 per cent higher than in Japan. ●●

1960 Special Group as Eisenhower's Proxy rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Special Group acted as President Eisenhower's proxy for approving covert actions including coups and assassinations. ●●

1960 Kennedy elected president, retains Allen Dulles ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John F. Kennedy wins a narrow victory in the presidential election. Two days later, he announces his cabinet selections, including retaining Allen Dulles as CIA director. ●●

1960 NSC weighs military action over the Congo ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Ambassador Timberlake briefs the National Security Council on August 1. The council decides the United States must be prepared to take military action to prevent Soviet intervention in the Congo. ●●

1960 Devlin warns of Communist takeover threat in Congo candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story CIA station chief Larry Devlin cables an urgent warning to Director Allen Dulles about classic Communist efforts to take over the Congolese government. ●●

1960 Kasavubu dismisses Prime Minister Lumumba ai_extracted 1 cit. no story President Kasavubu broadcasts an announcement on Radio Leo dismissing Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and naming a successor, precipitating a major political crisis. ●●

1960 Mobutu seizes power in the Congo ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Colonel Joseph Mobutu announces on Radio Leo that he has decided to neutralize both Lumumba and Kasavubu, close parliament, and establish military rule under a College of Commissars. ●●

1960 Lumumba escapes house arrest in Leopoldville ai_extracted 1 cit. no story During a tropical rainstorm, Patrice Lumumba escapes from his residence which has been surrounded by guards. He flees Leopoldville in a convoy attempting to reach his stronghold in Stanleyville. ●●

1960 Allen Dulles briefs Senator Kennedy on CIA operations candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story CIA Director Allen Dulles travels to Hyannis Port to brief Democratic presidential nominee Senator John F. Kennedy on CIA operations worldwide. The two spend two hours together. ●●

1960 Allen Dulles meets with American business executives about Cuba candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Allen Dulles briefs the Special Group on a meeting with American business executives from Standard Oil, Cuban-American Sugar, Domino Refining, ITT, and other companies. They discuss the need for US action against Castro. ●●

1960 First postwar German stock listed in London ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1960, Siegmund arranged a London share quotation for the August Thyssen steel combine—the first listing of a German stock since the war. Since... ●●

1960 Kennedy’s election in 1960 and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Kennedy’s election in 1960 and a sudden progressive upsurge, it looked as if Jimmy’s moment had at last arrived. He was a hero to young idealists who... ●●

1960 1. Leo Baeck Institute Bulletin, 1960, p. 182 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1. Leo Baeck Institute Bulletin, 1960, p. 182. ●●

1960 22. Ibid., memo of conversation between Eric Warburg rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 22. Ibid., memo of conversation between Eric Warburg and Rudolf Brinckmann, June 20, 1960. ●●

1960 23. Ibid., letter from Eric Warburg to Rudolf rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 23. Ibid., letter from Eric Warburg to Rudolf Brinckmann, October 18, 1960. ●●

1960 24. Ibid., letter from Rudolf Brinckmann to Eric rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 24. Ibid., letter from Rudolf Brinckmann to Eric Warburg, November 3, 1960. ●●

1960 22. JW. Box 21. Stevenson, September 1960-May 1965 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 22. JW. Box 21. Stevenson, September 1960-May 1965, letter from Adlai Stevenson to John F. Kennedy, December 30, 1960. ●●

1960 McLuhan receives research funding rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story National Association of Educational Broadcasters and U.S. Office of Education fund McLuhan's research on media communication ●●

1960 That was particularly true in the 1960s rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story That was particularly true in the 1960s and 1970s. ●●

1960 to Julian and Mercedes Ramirez. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story to Julian and Mercedes Ramirez. ●●

1960 In 1960, the number of Americans dead was 5; in 1961, 16; in 1963, 123; and in 1964, the last peacet rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1960, the number of Americans dead was 5; in 1961, 16; in 1963, 123; and in 1964, the last peacetime year before American combat units were committed, the number had risen to more than 200. ●●

1960 But the America of the late 1960s—stalemated in Indochina and torn by domestic conflict—required a m rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story But the America of the late 1960s—stalemated in Indochina and torn by domestic conflict—required a more complex and nuanced definition of its international enterprise. ●●

1960 1960: Robert Noyce (1927–90) at Fairchild in 1960. Gordon Moore (1929– ) at rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Robert Noyce (1927–90) at Fairchild in 1960. Gordon Moore (1929– ) at Intel in 1970. Gordon ●●

1960 1960: s—in other words, the digital world we have today. These ideas formed rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story s—in other words, the digital world we have today. These ideas formed the basis for one of the most influential papers in the history of postwar techn ●●

1960 1960: Baran came up with two key ideas, which he began publishing in 1960. H rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Baran came up with two key ideas, which he began publishing in 1960. His first was that the network should not be cent ●●

1960 One advertising executive stated in 1856 that some journals are poor v... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story One advertising executive stated in 1856 that some journals are poor vehicles because “their readers are not purchasers, and any money thrown upon them is so much thrown away.”46 The same force took a ●●

1960 Event of 1960 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By the time the FDA gave Searle ap- proval to go to market in May 1960, it was already clear that this was not the “magic pill” Sanger had been waitin ●●

1960 Nigeria gains independence from Britain ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When Nigeria was granted independence from Britain in 1960, it was bequeathed a democratic constitution that provided for regular elections. ●●

1960 “Population Commission, Fifth Session, Provisional Summary Record of the Fifty-Fourth Meeting,” M... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “Population Commission, Fifth Session, Provisional Summary Record of the Fifty-Fourth Meeting,” May 23, 1950, Hauser Papers, box 30, folder 1; UN Secretariat, Department of Social Affairs, Populati... ●●

1960 Blacker Papers, box 11, “Blacker: Eugenics Society, 1960”; Frederick Osborn, “Galton and Mid-Cent... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Blacker Papers, box 11, “Blacker: Eugenics Society, 1960”; Frederick Osborn, “Galton and Mid-Century Eugenics,” Eugenics Review 48, no. ●●

1960 On Indonesia, see Nielsen, “Draft Recommendations for Foundation Ac- tivity,” May 28, 1953, FFA, ... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On Indonesia, see Nielsen, “Draft Recommendations for Foundation Ac- tivity,” May 28, 1953, FFA, 1953 General Correspondence, C-1165A, “Popula- tion.” On fellowships, see Docket Item, “The Populati... ●●

1960 Agnew, to FPA branches, June 27, 1960, IPPFA, series B, reel 715; Linder, Crusader for Sex Educat... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Agnew, to FPA branches, June 27, 1960, IPPFA, series B, reel 715; Linder, Crusader for Sex Education, 233; Minutes of the Meeting of the Manage- ment and Planning Committee, May 12–13, 1960, IPPFA,... ●●

1960 Minutes of the Meeting of the Management and Planning Committee, May 12–13, 1960; Linder, Crusade... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Minutes of the Meeting of the Management and Planning Committee, May 12–13, 1960; Linder, Crusader for Sex Education, 234; Day to Burdick, Janu- ary 16, 1961, IPPFA, series B, reel 719, frame 1027. ●●

1960 “Agenda, Meeting of Board of Trustees,” October 19, 1960, RAC, RG IV3B4.2, Population Council, Ge... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “Agenda, Meeting of Board of Trustees,” October 19, 1960, RAC, RG IV3B4.2, Population Council, General File, box 36, folder 507; McCarthy, “Ford Foundation’s Population Program,” 21–22; Radhika Ram... ●●

1960 ” Across the board, private enforcement cases grew from fewer than 100 per year in the late 1960s to rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ” Across the board, private enforcement cases grew from fewer than 100 per year in the late 1960s to 10,000 in the 1980s, and more than 22,000 by the late 1990s. ●●

1960 There has been a large geographical sorting of the parties that began in the 1960s, with virtually t rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story There has been a large geographical sorting of the parties that began in the 1960s, with virtually the entire South moving from the Democratic to the Republican Party, and Republicans becoming almost extinct in the Northeast. ●●

1960 Democratic political systems have faced such crises in the past, notably during the 1930s when they rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Democratic political systems have faced such crises in the past, notably during the 1930s when they fell into economic depression and were challenged by alternative fascist and communist competitors, or again in the 1960s and ’70s, when they were des ●●

1960 ” In the decades following the famed peasant rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ” In the decades following the famed peasant rebellion in 1932, which was crushed by an unholy massacre, a reform govern ●●

1960 Fleming, The Cold War and its Origins, 1917-1960 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Fleming, The Cold War and its Origins, 1917-1960 (New York, 1961), p ●●

1960 Licklider publishes 'Man-Computer Symbiosis' ai_extracted 2 cit. no story J.C.R. Licklider's paper proposed a tight coupling of human brains and computing machines. ●●

1960 Congo becomes independent ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On the day the Congo became independent, Nkrumah writes, there began a chapter of financial manoeuvring by Belgian and American interests that historians would later scrutinise closely. ●●

1960 Belgium dissolves the Comite Special du Katanga ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A hurried Belgian decree issued three days before the Congo's independence day dissolved the semi-official Comite Special du Katanga, a manoeuvre Nkrumah says was designed to keep control of mineral wealth out of Congolese hands. ●●

January 1960 End of the Mau Mau Emergency 1 cit. The colonial government formally lifted the State of Emergency after nearly eight years, during which police, Special Branch, the GSU's colonial-era precursor units, and military forces killed an estimated 11,000 or more Mau Mau fighters and detained roughly 150,000 to 320,000 Kenyans, figures drawn from British colonial records and later historical research. The Emergency left the Kenya Police with an institutional legacy of counter-insurgency and mass detention. politics / war ●●●

c. 1960 The Colour Bar on the Highlands Falls 3 cit. By 1959-60 the formal racial barrier that had reserved the Highlands for whites was coming down, and Africans and Indians could in principle buy land there. That was a real end to the legal white preserve. But it was not restitution: buyers still needed money, credit, an available seller and board approval. The land question moved from open race law into market purchase, title, debt and political access. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●●●●

1960 Willing Buyer, Willing Seller for the Highlands 2 cit. At the Lancaster House talks the British insisted that the Highlands change hands by purchase on a willing-buyer, willing-seller basis, with settlers paid market value and their property rights written into the independence constitution. This ruled out giving the land back to those it had been taken from. The dispossessed would have to buy their land again, and only those with money, credit, or connections could take part, a point stressed in accounts of the loyalist land inheritance. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●●

1960 Lancaster House talks chart Kenyan independence ai_extracted 1 cit. In January 1960 the first constitutional conference at Lancaster House set Kenya on the path to majority rule, with Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod announcing a parliamentary democracy based on universal franchise. Settlers were stunned, but the aftermath of Hola had made continued British rule untenable. ●●

1960 KADU forms for the smaller groups and majimbo 2 cit. Leaders of smaller communities, including Ronald Ngala and Daniel arap Moi, founded the Kenya African Democratic Union to guard the interests of groups such as the Kalenjin, Maasai, Turkana, and coastal peoples against domination by the larger tribes. KADU pushed for majimbo, a federal system with strong regions holding land and local power. The split set the two main parties against each other largely along a big-group and small-group ethnic line. The party and its federal platform are documented. politics ●●●

August 1960 The CIA marks Lumumba for removal 1 cit. In August 1960 CIA Director Allen Dulles cabled Leopoldville that Lumumba’s removal was an urgent objective. The agency’s chemist Sidney Gottlieb was sent with poison to kill him. The Church Committee later documented the plot; the poison was never used. ●●

December 1960 Kibaki joins KANU as executive officer 1 cit. In December 1960 Kibaki left lecturing and joined the Kenya African National Union as executive officer. The Presidential Library credits him with helping build KANU party structures and participating in the team around Kenya's first constitution. Kibaki entered national politics through the technocratic party-building side of the independence movement. politics ●●●●

c. 1960 The falling colour bar turns restitution into a finance test 2 cit. By 1959-60 London and Nairobi accepted that racial and tribal barriers to Highland land tenure had to go. Africans and Asians could in principle buy land in the former White Highlands. But the test was no longer justice; it was money, credit, board approval, seller consent and agricultural credentials. The colour bar fell, but the stolen land was not returned. It was put on the market. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●●●●

1961 First round of Japanese trade liberalizations ai_extracted 1 cit. Japan carried out its first round of trade liberalizations in 1961, but the United States remained dissatisfied and demanded the abolition of Japanese import restrictions to reduce the trade imbalance. ●●

17 April 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion fails in Cuba 1 cit. The CIA landed a force of Cuban exiles to overthrow Fidel Castro, but the invasion collapsed within days. The defeat humiliated the Kennedy administration and pushed Cuba closer to the Soviet Union. politics / war ●●●●●

1961 Quigley: seventeen merchant banks at the core of English finance ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley argues a handful of private merchant banking firms sat at the core of English financial life and kept influence over the Bank of England. As late as 1961 a Baring was named governor, with a board including Lazard, Hambros, and Morgan Grenfell. ●●

1961 United Nations membership more than doubles ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley notes UN membership rising from 51 states in 1945 to 104 by 1961, with an astronomical spread of power between the strongest and weakest members. ●●

1961 Soviet Union resumes testing with 58-megaton bomb ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In October 1961 the Soviet Union broke the three-year test moratorium to seek smaller warheads, having realized it had fallen behind in ICBMs. To conceal this purpose, it publicized the explosion of a 58-megaton thermonuclear bomb, the largest ever used. ●●

1961 First humans sent into space ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In April and August 1961 Soviet Vostok vehicles sent the first human beings into space, Gagarin and Titov, recovered on Soviet soil. The feats astounded world opinion and drove immense US investment in science and education. ●●

1961 Berlin Wall built ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On August 13, 1961 East German authorities sealed the frontier with a 'death strip' and hastily built a wall dividing East from West Berlin. It was meant to stop the flood of East Germans fleeing to the prosperous West, though thousands still escaped. ●●

1961 Bay of Pigs invasion fails ai_extracted 1 cit. The 1,500 men landed at the Bay of Pigs in southern Cuba on April 17, 1961 were destroyed within seventy-two hours by Castro's militia. Quigley calls the bungled CIA operation the most shameful event in US history since World War II. ●●

1961 Castro declares himself a Marxist-Leninist ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After proclaiming Cuba a socialist state on May Day 1961, Castro announced his own Marxist-Leninist beliefs in a two-day speech on December 1-2, 1961. Quigley argues he was not a convinced Communist but a power-hungry, emotionally unstable individual. ●●

1961 Alliance for Progress charter signed at Punta del Este ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The formal agreement for the Alliance for Progress was signed by all Organization of American States members except Cuba at Punta del Este, Uruguay, on August 17, 1961. Its aims were admirable but its implementation remained deficient. ●●

1961 UAMS charter signed at Tananarive, 1961 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Union of African and Malagasy States, the moderate French-linked grouping, did not sign its charter of union until its fourth conference, at Tananarive, in September 1961. ●●

1961 Army revolt in Algeria, 1961 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The mutiny of several army contingents in Algeria in April 1961 showed the opposition to De Gaulle was largely confined to the highest officers, whom he then removed. ●●

1961 Britain applies to join the Common Market, 1961 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Driven by the EEC's prosperity, Macmillan applied for British membership in the European Economic Community in August 1961, opening many months of onerous negotiations. ●●

1961 Eisenhower warns of a scientific-technological elite ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In his 1961 farewell address, President Dwight Eisenhower warned that public policy could become captive to a scientific-technological elite. Wood presents this as an early caution against technocracy. ●●

1961 Gatto begins teaching in New York City ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto recounts starting his career as a schoolteacher in 1961, when what John Dewey called the new individualism dominated urban American schooling. ●●

1961 Patrice Lumumba executed in the Congo ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Lumumba was captured by CIA-backed Joseph Mobutu and handed to his enemies. A Belgian officer shot him dead just before Kennedy's inauguration. ●●

1961 Intelligence board urges reassessment of covert action ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities issued final recommendations questioning whether covert action was worth its costs. It called for a total reassessment of the CIA's programs. ●●

1961 Eisenhower leaves a 'legacy of ashes' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At his final National Security Council meetings, an angry Eisenhower said he had failed to reform American intelligence. He told Dulles he would leave a legacy of ashes to his successor. ●●

1961 CIA arms Dominican conspirators against Trujillo ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The agency was told a small-arms shipment was headed to Dominican plotters planning to kill dictator Rafael Trujillo. The Special Group had approved the decision a week earlier. ●●

1961 Rafael Trujillo assassinated ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo was gunned down two weeks after the arms warning. It was the closest the CIA had come to a White House-directed murder. ●●

1961 Bay of Pigs invasion begins with air strikes ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Eight American B-26 bombers hit Cuban airfields as the CIA's exile brigade sailed for the Bay of Pigs. The strikes destroyed only part of Castro's air force. ●●

1961 Bay of Pigs ends in disaster ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Castro's forces crushed the CIA-backed brigade on the beaches in sixty hours. Most of the invaders were captured and over a hundred died. ●●

1961 Allen Dulles retires as director of central intelligence ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the Bay of Pigs failure, Allen Dulles left the CIA. His long tenure of unchecked covert action came to an end. ●●

1961 Berlin Wall erected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story East Germany sealed off West Berlin, first with barbed wire and then concrete. The CIA found it could do little in East Germany. ●●

1961 Kennedys create Special Group (Augmented) to eliminate Castro ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John and Robert Kennedy set up a secret planning cell devoted to overthrowing Fidel Castro. It reported directly to the attorney general. ●●

1961 West German spy chief Heinz Felfe arrested as Soviet mole ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Heinz Felfe, head of West German counterintelligence, was exposed as a Soviet agent. He had betrayed roughly seventy CIA operations and the identities of over a hundred officers. ●●

1961 ” *In 1961 Six gave rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ” *In 1961 Six gave testimony as a defense witness during Adolf Eichmann’s trial for crimes against humanity. Six had retired from the Gehlen Organization by that time and was employed as an agent for Porsche automobiles. Eichmann was a department head for Porsche’s rival, Daimler-Benz. ●●

1961 Jane Jacobs publishes The Death and Life of Great American Cities ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Jane Jacobs publishes The Death and Life of Great American Cities in 1961, offering a comprehensive critique of high-modernist urban planning doctrine. Her work emphasizes street-level observation and the functional superiority of urban diversity over planned segregation. ●●