Events, Verisoph

February 1488 Portuguese navigators round the Cape 0 cit. Portuguese navigator Bartolomeu Dias became the first recorded European to sail around the southern tip of Africa, naming it the Cape of Storms; the Portuguese crown later renamed it the Cape of Good Hope. This voyage opened a sea route around Africa toward the Indian Ocean and Asia. Portuguese ships subsequently stopped at the Cape for water and trade with local Khoikhoi but did not settle there. diplomacy / technology ●●

1488 Bartolomeu Dias rounds the Cape of Good Hope 0 cit. Portuguese navigator Bartolomeu Dias sailed around the southern tip of Africa, proving a sea route from Europe to the Indian Ocean was possible. This opened the way for direct European trade with Asia by sea rather than overland. Vasco da Gama would complete the route to India a decade later. science ●●

c. 1490 Leonardo da Vinci, the universal man 0 cit. Leonardo da Vinci unites painting, anatomy, engineering, and natural science in a single restless mind, the model of the Renaissance universal man. His notebooks fused art and science in a way the modern world still idealizes. culture / science ●●●●

c. 1490 The Joka-Jok, the first Luo wave into the lake basin 5 cit. The earliest Luo group to reach the Kenyan side of Lake Victoria is remembered as the Joka-Jok, the people of Jok, who moved down through the Acholi and Uganda country and settled around Got Ramogi. Oral tradition and linguistic reconstruction place this first wave in roughly the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries. From this bridgehead the Luo spread out across the Nyanza lakeshore. society ●●●

1491 Conversion of the manikongo and baptism as João I 0 cit. The Kongo ruler Nzinga a Nkuwu accepted Catholic baptism and took the name João I, encouraged by Portuguese missionaries and his own interest in the alliance. Christianity became the court religion, and Kongo adopted Portuguese titles, dress, and literacy alongside its own traditions. The kingdom dealt with Portugal for a time as a nominal equal rather than a subject. diplomacy / religion ●●

1491 Portuguese missionaries baptize the king of Kongo 0 cit. Portuguese missionaries baptized the Kongo ruler Nzinga a Nkuwa, who took the name Joao. His son Afonso made Catholicism the court religion and exchanged envoys with Lisbon and Rome. The Kongo mission is an early case of Christianity spreading through an African kingdom, entangled from the start with Portuguese trade and the growing Atlantic slave trade. diplomacy / economy / religion ●●

1491 Contact with the Kingdom of Kongo and its Christianization 0 cit. After the Portuguese reach the Kongo coast, its ruler is baptized and the kingdom adopts Catholicism, opening close ties with Lisbon. What began as an alliance between two Christian crowns turned corrosive as the demand for slaves grew, and the trade would later hollow the kingdom out from within. diplomacy / religion / society ●●

12 October 1492 Columbus reaches the Americas 0 cit. Christopher Columbus, sailing for Spain, lands in the Bahamas while seeking a westward route to Asia. Sustained contact between the hemispheres begins, bringing European empires, the Columbian exchange, and demographic catastrophe for indigenous peoples. exploration ●●●●●

31 March 1492 Expulsion of the Jews from Spain 0 cit. Ferdinand and Isabella issue the Alhambra Decree ordering Jews to convert or leave Spain within months. The expulsion ends centuries of Iberian Jewish life and scatters Sephardic communities across the Mediterranean world. politics / religion / society ●●●●

2 January 1492 Fall of Granada 0 cit. On 2 January 1492 the Nasrid ruler Boabdil surrendered Granada to the Catholic Monarchs of Spain. The fall of the last Muslim state in Iberia completed the Reconquista. politics / religion / war ●●●●

31 March 1492 The Alhambra Decree 0 cit. The Catholic Monarchs of Spain ordered the expulsion of Jews who would not convert to Christianity in 1492. Tens of thousands left, spreading the Sephardic diaspora across the Mediterranean. politics / religion ●●●●

1492 Rise of the Spanish Empire 0 cit. The union of Castile and Aragon and the voyage of Columbus launched Spain's overseas empire. It grew into one of the first global empires spanning the Americas and the Pacific. exploration / politics ●●●●●

2 January 1492 Fall of Granada and completion of the Reconquista 0 cit. The Emirate of Granada surrendered to the Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, ending nearly eight centuries of Muslim rule in Iberia. The victory freed Castilian resources and ambition for overseas expansion. politics / religion / war ●●●●

31 March 1492 Alhambra Decree expels the Jews from Spain 0 cit. The Catholic Monarchs ordered the expulsion of Jews who would not convert to Christianity, forcing tens of thousands to leave Castile and Aragon. The decree tied religious uniformity to the emerging Spanish state. politics / religion / society ●●●

c. 1492 The Columbian Exchange reshapes two worlds 0 cit. Sustained contact set off a two way transfer of crops, animals, people, and diseases between the Americas, Europe, and Africa. Old World epidemics killed most of the Indigenous population, while American crops reshaped diets worldwide. environment / science / society ●●●●

8 April 1492 Lorenzo the Magnificent dies 0 cit. Lorenzo de' Medici died in April 1492, leaving his less able son Piero in charge. His death is often taken as the end of the golden age of Medici Florence. culture / politics ●●●

c. 1492 The Columbian Exchange 0 cit. The contact between the Old and New Worlds set off a vast transfer of crops, animals, people and diseases across the Atlantic. Old World epidemics killed a large share of indigenous Americans, while new crops reshaped diets worldwide. environment / society ●●●●●

1492 Final ejection of the Arabs from Spain ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley notes that from the Arab invasion of 711 to their final ejection in 1492, Spanish life was dominated by the struggle against the foreign intruder, one root of Spain's later fanatical intolerance. ●●

1492 In 1492 there were about two million people rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1492 there were about two million people living east of the Missis sippi. ●●

1492 Columbus sails west seeking the Great Khan ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After studying Marco Polo's account of his transcontinental travels two centuries earlier, in 1492 Christopher Columbus began his voyage to the land of the Great Khan. The Mongol E... ●●

1492 Alexander VI succeeds Innocent VIII as pope ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Pope Innocent VIII was succeeded by Alexander VI, the Borgia pope, who had greater sympathy for magic and astrology. ●●

1492 Expulsion of Jews from Spain ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Jews were expelled from Spain, dispersing many to the Ottoman Empire and eventually establishing significant presence in Venice as merchants and lenders. ●●

1492 Columbus sails on Ptolemy's small Earth 0 cit. Christopher Columbus, relying on a tradition that underestimated the size of the globe, part of it traceable to Ptolemy, judged Asia reachable by sailing west. He was wrong about the distance and found the Americas instead, an error with world-changing consequences. exploration / science ●●●

1492 Ferdinand of Aragon attacks Granada ai_extracted 1 cit. no story King Ferdinand began his reign by attacking Granada, an enterprise that laid the foundation of his growing dominions and fame. ●●

1492 Franco’s regime reasserted the Spain of the 1492 expulsion, against all that rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Franco’s regime reasserted the Spain of the 1492 expulsion, against all that had happened in the peninsula over the last hundred years: Spain was conceived of as racially pure, deferential to paternalistic authority, corporatist, uniformly Catholic ●●

1492 2; and ancient Greeks; in Babylon; conversion in Last Days; deicide; and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 2; and ancient Greeks; in Babylon; conversion in Last Days; deicide; and early Christians; in England; and Enlightenment; eschew infanticide; expulsion from Spain (1492); first called; and Mass; in medieval Europe; in Middle East; and Nazism (Holocau ●●

1492 Expulsion from Spain scatters the Kabbalists ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Spanish Inquisition expulsion forces Jewish Kabbalists to migrate to Ottoman lands, especially Safed, Palestine ●●

1492 Last Days calculation in 1492 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Muscovite educated circles calculate Last Days due in year 1492-1493, Church fails to prepare calendars. ●●

c. 1492 Columbian Exchange transforms global agriculture 0 cit. Following Columbus's voyages, plants, animals, and diseases moved between the Old and New Worlds on a scale never seen before. Crops like potatoes, maize, and tomatoes reached Europe, Africa, and Asia, while horses, cattle, and wheat reached the Americas, alongside diseases that devastated Indigenous peoples. The exchange reshaped diets and populations worldwide and became one of colonization's most lasting legacies. economy / science ●●

31 March 1492 The Alhambra Decree expels the Jews of Spain 0 cit. Ferdinand and Isabella signed the Alhambra Decree, giving the Jews of Spain until the end of July to convert or leave. Estimates of those expelled range widely, from tens of thousands to over a hundred thousand. Many fled to Portugal, North Africa, and the Ottoman lands, scattering Sephardic Jews across the Mediterranean and beyond. politics / religion / society ●●●

3 August 1492 Columbus sails the day after the expulsion deadline 0 cit. Columbus's first voyage left the port of Palos on 3 August 1492, just after the final deadline for Jews to leave Spain. The two events fell in the same summer, and the harbor was crowded with departing refugees. The overlap is a documented coincidence of timing, not evidence that the voyage was arranged as part of the expulsion. politics / religion / technology ●●●

1492 Luis de Santangel helps fund the first voyage 0 cit. Luis de Santangel, keeper of King Ferdinand's privy purse and a member of a prominent converso family, helped arrange the money for Columbus's voyage after the crown first hesitated. He advanced and organized funds drawn largely from royal and treasury sources. This is documented court finance, not a private Jewish scheme, since Santangel was a Catholic official of the Aragonese crown. economy / politics / technology ●●

c. 1492 Gabriel Sanchez and converso officials at court 0 cit. Gabriel Sanchez, the treasurer general of Aragon and also of converso descent, was among the royal officials involved in backing the expedition. Columbus later addressed a famous letter announcing his findings to Sanchez. Several New Christians held senior posts at court, which reflects their real place in Spanish administration rather than any hidden control of it. economy / politics ●

1492 Luis de Torres, the interpreter, crosses the Atlantic 0 cit. Luis de Torres, a converso who knew Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic, was baptized shortly before sailing and joined the voyage as an interpreter. Columbus expected to reach Asia and thought these languages might help in talks with its rulers. Torres was among the first Europeans to land in the Americas and is often described as the first person of Jewish origin to do so. culture / religion / technology ●●

c. 1492 Sultan Bayezid II welcomes the exiles to the Ottoman Empire 0 cit. Sultan Bayezid II opened the Ottoman lands to Jews fleeing Spain, reportedly mocking Ferdinand for impoverishing his own kingdom to enrich the sultan's. Thousands settled in Salonica, Istanbul, and other cities, where Sephardic communities and their Ladino language flourished for centuries. The Ottoman refuge became the largest single destination of the 1492 exile. diplomacy / religion / society ●●●

c. 1492 Sephardic refuge in North Africa 0 cit. Many exiles crossed to Fez, Tlemcen, and other cities of the Maghreb, where established Jewish communities absorbed them, not always easily. The newcomers, called megorashim, kept their Spanish customs distinct from the local Jews for generations. These communities became another anchor of the Sephardic world after 1492. culture / religion / society ●

January 1492 The fall of Granada completes the Reconquista 0 cit. In January 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella took Granada, the last Muslim kingdom in Iberia, ending centuries of Christian reconquest. With the peninsula unified under Catholic rule, the monarchs turned to enforcing a single faith. The expulsion decree for the Jews came only weeks later. Historians tie the timing to a drive to complete a one-faith realm, with the unresolved converso question at its center. politics / religion / war ●●●

17 April 1492 Capitulations of Santa Fe grant Columbus his terms 0 cit. After years of lobbying, Columbus won a contract from Ferdinand and Isabella agreeing to fund his westward voyage to reach Asia. The Capitulations of Santa Fe promised him the titles Admiral of the Ocean Sea and viceroy of any lands he found, plus a tenth of the wealth from them. These generous hereditary terms later became the source of long legal disputes between his heirs and the crown. economy / politics ●●

c. 1492 Columbus's apocalyptic faith and mission to retake Jerusalem 0 cit. Columbus held an intense Catholic faith with a strong apocalyptic and millenarian streak, well documented in his own letters and writings. He believed his voyages were divinely ordained to carry Christianity across the world and that the gold he found would fund a new crusade to recapture Jerusalem before the end of the world. He signed documents with a cryptic religious device and read his first name, Christopher, as Christoferens, the Christ-bearer chosen for this task. religion ●●

25 December 1492 La Navidad, the first European settlement in the Americas 0 cit. After his flagship the Santa Maria ran aground off Hispaniola on Christmas, Columbus used its timbers to build a small fort and left about 39 men behind, naming the outpost La Navidad. It was the first European settlement in the Americas since the Norse. When Columbus returned the following year, he found the fort burned and all its men dead, after they had abused the local Taino. politics / society ●

1492 Ottomans welcome Jews expelled from Spain 0 cit. After Spain expels its Jewish population, Sultan Bayezid II invites the refugees to settle in Ottoman lands and reportedly mocks the Spanish king for impoverishing his own realm. Sephardic Jews build large communities in Istanbul, Salonica, and Izmir, contributing to trade, printing, medicine, and finance. The welcome stands in sharp contrast to their treatment in Christian Europe. economy / religion / society ●●●

1492 Sultan Bayezid II welcomes the exiles 0 cit. The Ottoman sultan Bayezid II invited the expelled Sephardim into his empire, where they settled in Istanbul, Salonica, Izmir, and the Balkans. A story often repeated has him marveling that Spain called Ferdinand wise while he impoverished his own kingdom and enriched the Ottomans. Whatever his exact words, the Ottoman lands became the largest Sephardic home. diplomacy / politics / society ●●●

4 May 1493 Inter Caetera divides the New World 0 cit. Pope Alexander VI drew a line dividing newly reached lands between Spain and Portugal and granted them rights to convert and rule the peoples there. The bull is a central document of the Doctrine of Discovery. exploration / politics / religion ●●●●

1493 Alexander VI absolves Pico of all heresy charges ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Pope Alexander VI promulgated bulls absolving Pico and his works from all heresy charges on June 18, 1493. ●●

1493 The Meaning and Chronology of the Struggle Although rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story One such move, by Maximilian I of Austria (1493–1519, and Holy Roman emperor 1508–1519), had brought in the rich hereditary lands of Burgundy and, with them, the Netherlands in 1477. Another, conseque ●●

1493 War (1493) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 84. Postan, M.M. An Economic History of Western Europe, 1945-1964. London, 1967. Potichny, P.T., ed. The Ukraine in the Seventies. Oakville, Ont., 1982. Potter, E.B., ed. Sea Po ●●

25 September 1493 Columbus's second voyage and the colonization of Hispaniola 0 cit. Columbus returned across the Atlantic with a large fleet of some 17 ships and over 1,000 settlers, soldiers, and priests, this time to establish a permanent colony. He found La Navidad, the fort he had left the year before, destroyed and its garrison dead, and founded a new settlement called La Isabela. The voyage began sustained Spanish occupation of the Caribbean and the imposition of colonial rule on the Taino. politics / religion ●●

c. 1493 Sao Tome becomes a sugar and slave colony 0 cit. Portugal turns the uninhabited island of Sao Tome, off the coast of central Africa, into a sugar colony worked by enslaved Africans. It became both a plantation and a holding depot for the slave trade feeding out of the Kongo and Angola coasts, and it sharpened the plantation model later taken to Brazil. economy / society ●●

16 June 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas wikidata 0 cit. treaty dividing territory between Portugal and Spain ●●●

1494 to 1559 Italian Wars 0 cit. no story France and Habsburg Spain fight a series of wars for dominance in Italy over six decades. Spain emerges as the leading power in Italy and Europe. politics / war ●●●●

1494 Collapse of the Medici Bank 0 cit. Weakened by bad loans, poor management, and branch failures, the Medici Bank is dissolved when the Medici are expelled from Florence during the French invasion of Italy. The century-long dominance of Florence's greatest bank ends. economy / politics ●●●

1494 Reuchlin publishes De Verbo Mirifico 0 cit. Johann Reuchlin, a leading Christian Hebraist, presented Kabbalistic ideas about the power of divine names in De Verbo Mirifico. His studies helped establish Kabbalah as a subject of Christian scholarship. culture / religion ●●●●

7 June 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas divides the world 0 cit. Spain and Portugal agreed to split newly encountered lands along a meridian in the Atlantic, giving most of the Americas to Spain and Brazil and Africa's route to Portugal. It set an early precedent for European powers partitioning distant territories by treaty. exploration / politics ●●●●

1494 Medici expelled and the bank collapses 0 cit. In 1494 the people of Florence drove out Piero de' Medici as a French army approached, and the family's bank was wound down. The Medici would not return to power for nearly two decades. economy / politics ●●●

1494 Event rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1494 the pope declared Ferdinand and Isabella to be "Catholic kings;' melding the principles of dynastic power with Christianity. Along with victory came a drive to rid the poli... ●●

1494 Death of Pico della Mirandola ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Pico della Mirandola died on the day the French king's armies entered Florence. ●●

1494 Lefevre d'Etaples publishes edition of Ficino's Pimander ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Lefevre d'Etaples' edition of Ficino's Pimander was published by the University of Paris. ●●

1494 Medici expelled from Florence, bank records burned ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Amid French invasion chaos, the Medici were expelled from Florence and their property confiscated; a mob burned most of the bank's records. ●●

1494 The “European Miracle”15 Why was it among the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story To take one specific and obvious instance, it was inconceivable in the fractured political circumstances of Reformation Europe that everyone would acknowledge the pope’s 1494 division of the overseas ●●

1494 A fuller discussion of that specific Habsburg attempt rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story All of this enhanced to an enormous degree the power and the mobility of artillery and gave the owner of such weapons the means to reduce the strongest fortresses—as the Italian city-states found to t ●●

1494 War (1494) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 8–1789 (Manchester, 1982). On navies, see Reynolds, Command of the Sea, chs. 6–9; Kennedy, Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery, chs. 3–5; Padfield, Tide of Empires, vol. 2. 3. ●●

1494 Economic (1494) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story rope, vol. 3 (1976), pp. 22–76; NCMH, vol. 8, p. 714; B. R. Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, 1750–1970 (London, 1975), pt. A; W. Woodruff, Impact of Western Man: A Study o ●●

1494 Treaty of Tordesillas grants Portugal claim to Brazil ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 gave Portugal possession of what would become Brazil, this system of labor would prove to be exportable. ●●

1494 Pacioli codifies double-entry in print 0 cit. The friar and mathematician Luca Pacioli published Summa de arithmetica, a math textbook that included a section describing the Venetian method of double-entry bookkeeping in clear steps. Printed on the new press, it spread the technique across Europe and earned Pacioli the title father of accounting. Historians stress he did not invent double-entry but was the first to write it down systematically for a wide audience. culture / economy / science ●●●

1495 Series of Italian military campaigns over twenty years rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Major Italian battles occurred in sequence: Il Taro (1495), Alessandria (1499), Capua (1501), Genoa (1507), Vaila (1509), Bologna (1511), Mestri (1513). ●●

c. 1495 Aldus Manutius prints the Greek classics in Venice 0 cit. The printer Aldus Manutius founds the Aldine Press and issues affordable pocket editions of Aristotle, Plato, and the Greek and Latin authors. His work put the recovered classics into the hands of scholars across Europe and helped standardize the printed book. culture / technology ●●

c. 1495 Gold quotas and forced labor imposed on the Taino 0 cit. As governor, Columbus imposed a tribute system requiring Taino adults on Hispaniola to deliver set quantities of gold or cotton at regular intervals. The Spanish also forced Taino into labor in mines and fields under the emerging encomienda and repartimiento arrangements. According to Bartolome de las Casas, those who failed to meet the gold quota were mutilated or killed, and the demands helped drive a collapse in the Taino population. economy / society ●●

1495 Maximilian I's Imperial Reform 0 cit. A reforming diet under Maximilian I tried to give the sprawling empire working institutions. It set up a supreme court, the Imperial Chamber Court, declared a perpetual public peace to curb private wars, and organized the lands into regional circles. The reforms held the patchwork together without turning it into a unified state. politics / society ●●

c. 1496 Collapse of the Taino population of Hispaniola 0 cit. Within a generation of Columbus's arrival the Taino of Hispaniola were nearly wiped out by a combination of Old World disease, forced labor, violence, famine, and social breakdown. Estimates of the pre-contact population range widely from the hundreds of thousands into the millions, but by the 1510s and 1520s only a few thousand remained. It was one of the earliest and most complete demographic catastrophes of European colonization in the Americas. society ●●●

24 June 1497 John Cabot Reaches Newfoundland 0 cit. Sailing under a patent from Henry VII, the Italian navigator John Cabot made landfall in North America. The voyage gave England its earliest claim to the New World. exploration ●●●

1497 Expulsion of the Jews from Portugal 0 cit. Portugal ordered its Jews to convert or leave in 1496 and 1497, ending one of the last open Jewish communities in Western Europe. Many became forced converts known as New Christians. politics / religion ●●

1497 Event rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama sailed in 1497 around Af rica to India. There he encountered the Indian Ocean merchant networks run by Gujaratis, Arabs, Malays, Chinese, and ... ●●

1497 Portugal forces its Jews to convert 0 cit. King Manuel I had promised to expel the Jews as a condition of his marriage to a Spanish princess, but he did not want to lose their skills. Instead he ordered a mass forced baptism in 1497, seizing children and dragging families to the font. This created a huge converso population in Portugal whose descendants carried crypto-Jewish traditions for centuries. politics / religion / society ●●●

20 May 1498 Vasco da Gama reaches India by sea 0 cit. The Portuguese navigator arrived at Calicut after rounding the Cape of Good Hope, opening a direct maritime trade route from Europe to Asia. Portugal used it to seize control of the Indian Ocean spice trade. economy / exploration ●●●●

1498 Oceanic pressure of the West on Asia, 1498 to 1956 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley traces Western Civilization's seaborne pressure on Asia from Vasco da Gama reaching India in 1498, through Japan's surrender aboard the Missouri in 1945, to the Anglo-French attack on Suez in 1956. ●●

1498 Event of 1498 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Ceylon, China, and Indonesia, and Hindu art and statecraft influenced Thailand, Indochina, and beyond. When divided—as it often was—into competing kingdoms, India was a lure for invaders, traders, and spiritual seekers (some fulfilling multiple roles ●●

20 May 1498 Vasco da Gama reaches India 0 cit. Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut on India's Malabar coast, completing the first all-sea route from Europe to Asia. This broke the Arab and Venetian hold on the spice trade and let Portugal build a chain of fortified trading posts across the Indian Ocean. It marked the start of European colonial presence in Asia. economy / politics ●●●

1498 Diet of Freiburg outlaws the Roma 0 cit. The imperial Diet meeting at Freiburg declared the Roma outlaws and accused them of spying for the Ottoman Turks. The ruling stripped them of legal protection, so that a Roma could in principle be robbed or killed without penalty. It was reaffirmed at later imperial diets and set the tone for two centuries of anti-Roma law in the German lands. politics / society ●●●

1 August 1498 Columbus's third voyage reaches the South American mainland 0 cit. On his third crossing Columbus sailed further south and reached the coast of present-day Venezuela near the mouth of the Orinoco River, the first time he touched the South American continent. The vast volume of fresh water convinced him he had found a large landmass, which he interpreted through his religious lens as near the earthly paradise. He still placed it all on the edge of Asia rather than recognizing a separate continent. religion / science ●

1498 Vasco da Gama anchors at Malindi 0 cit. On his first voyage to India, the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama was welcomed at Malindi, whose ruler was a rival of Mombasa, and took on a pilot who guided him across the ocean to Calicut. The visit opened a century of Portuguese pressure on the Swahili coast, as Lisbon sought to seize the Indian Ocean trade by force. It marked the arrival of European sea power in the waters off Kenya. diplomacy / economy ●●

April 1498 Vasco da Gama reaches Malindi and the Portuguese arrive 5 cit. In 1498 the Portuguese fleet of Vasco da Gama reached Malindi, whose ruler gave him a pilot to guide the crossing to India. Portugal soon fought for control of the coast, sacking Mombasa more than once and building Fort Jesus there in 1593. Their arrival broke the independence of the Swahili city-states and opened the coast's colonial era. politics / war ●●●

February 1499 to 1 October 1499 Swabian War wikidata 0 cit. no story war in 1499 ●●●●

c. 1499 Guru Nanak's revelation 0 cit. Sikh tradition holds that Guru Nanak emerged from three days at the river with the message that there is neither Hindu nor Muslim, only one God. His teaching founds Sikhism, carried forward by nine successor gurus. religion ●●●●●

1499 Louis XII marries Anne of Brittany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Louis XII divorced his first wife and married Anne of Brittany in 1499 to retain the Duchy of Brittany for the French crown. ●●

c. 1500 to c. 1585 Antwerp as the financial capital of Europe 0 cit. Antwerp handles a large share of world trade in the early sixteenth century and its bourse becomes the model for later exchanges. The Spanish capture of the city in 1585 and the blockade of the Scheldt drive its merchants and capital to Amsterdam. economy ●●●●

c. 1500 Safed becomes a center of Kabbalah 0 cit. In the sixteenth century the town of Safed drew together an intense community of Kabbalists, poets, and legal scholars. It became the setting for a major renewal of Jewish mysticism. culture / religion ●●●●

22 April 1500 Cabral reaches Brazil 0 cit. Pedro Alvares Cabral landed on the coast of present-day Brazil and claimed it for Portugal. The territory became the largest and most enduring Portuguese colony in the Americas. exploration / politics ●●●

c. 1500 to c. 1866 The transatlantic slave trade 0 cit. Over roughly three and a half centuries, European traders shipped some twelve million enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to work in mines and plantations. Around one in seven died on the Middle Passage, and the trade underpinned the colonial economies of the Americas. economy / society ●●●●●

c. 1500 Everyday English words carry the names of ancient gods 0 cit. Common words descend from god-names, such as cereal from Ceres, volcano from Vulcan, panic from Pan, and jovial from Jove. The old gods live on hidden in ordinary speech. culture / society ●●●

1500 Total imports of people to the Americas from rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Total imports of people to the Americas from Africa had been below l,ooo per year in 1500, but passed rn,ooo per year in 1600 and stayed over 60,000 f... ●●

1500 1The Rise of the Western World In the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1The Rise of the Western World In the year 1500, the date chosen by numerous scholars to mark the divide between modern and premodern times,1 it was by no means obvious to the inhabitants of Europe th ●●

1500 A fuller discussion of that specific Habsburg attempt rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After all, would not the forces possessed by the new monarchies in 1500 have seemed puny if they had been deployed against the enormous armies of the sultan and the massed troops of the Ming Empire? T ●●

1500 The Meaning and Chronology of the Struggle Although rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The second reason for the much more widespread and interlinked pattern of warfare after 1500 was the creation of a dynastic combination, that of the Habsburgs, to form a network of territories which s ●●

1500 Introduction This is a book about national and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story It also concerns itself with tracing the changes which have occurred in the global economic balances since 1500; and yet it is not, at least directly, a work of economic history. What it concentrates ●●

1500 The Muslim World Even the first of the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Not only were the Ottoman Turks pushing westward, but the Safavid dynasty in Persia was also enjoying a resurgence of power, prosperity, and high culture, especially in the reigns of Ismail I (1500–15 ●●

1500 But perhaps the most important act of “rationalization” rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story What historians refer to as the “Vasco da Gama epoch” and the “Columbian era”—that is, the three or four centuries of European hegemony after 1500—was a very gradual process. Portuguese explorers migh ●●

1500 2The Habsburg Bid for Mastery, 1519–1659 By the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story For about a century and a half after 1500, a continent-wide combination of kingdoms, duchies, and provinces ruled by the Spanish and Austrian members of the Habsburg family threatened to become the pr ●●

1500 It was these spiraling costs of war which rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The general inflation, which saw food prices rise fivefold and industrial prices threefold between 1500 and 1630, was a heavy enough blow to government finances; but this was compounded by the doublin ●●

1500 Reform (1500) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story polla, Before the Industrial Revolution, pp. 276–96; D. C. Coleman, The Economy of England 1450–1750 (Oxford, 1977); B. Murphy, A History of the British Economy (London, 1973), pt. ●●

1500 Revolution (1500) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story nce française, passim; and Hatton (ed.), Louis XIV and Europe, passim. 45. L. Andre, Michel Le Tellier et Louvois (Paris, 1943 edn.); C. Jones, “The Military Revolution and the Pr ●●