Events, Verisoph

c. 1985 Court filings expose the Xenu and OT III space opera doctrine 0 cit. Litigation brought Hubbard's secret upper-level teachings into the public record, including the story of a galactic ruler named Xenu. The church had guarded the material as confidential scripture. religion ●●

1985 The Saturn car brand traces to the Roman god Saturn 0 cit. General Motors created the Saturn car brand in 1985, naming it after the Saturn rockets and ultimately the planet, which carries the name of the Roman god of agriculture and time. economy / religion / technology ●●

20 August 1985 The Iran-Contra affair begins 0 cit. US officials secretly sold weapons to Iran, then under an arms embargo, and diverted the proceeds to fund the Contras. The scheme broke US law and became the biggest scandal of the Reagan years. economy / politics ●●●●●

30 August 1985 Arms sales to Iran run through Israel 0 cit. The first US-approved missile shipments to Iran were routed through Israel, in part to seek the release of American hostages in Lebanon. The deals violated the stated US policy of not trading arms for hostages. politics / war ●●●

1985 Kenya adopts the 8-4-4 education system 0 cit. Under President Moi, Kenya replaces the old 7-4-2-3 structure with an 8-4-4 system (eight years primary, four secondary, four university) aimed at vocational and practical skills, a reform influenced by international development advice. politics / society ●●●

1985 Casey's two commands: hostages and contras ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the start of Reagan's second term, Casey faced two urgent presidential demands: free the hostages in Lebanon and save the contras. He resolved to merge both into a grand bargain with Iran. ●●

1985 Hezbollah hijacks TWA Flight 847 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Hezbollah hijacked TWA Flight 847 out of Athens, took it to Beirut, and murdered a U.S. Navy diver. The ordeal taught Casey that Reagan was willing to make deals with terrorists. ●●

1985 Reagan signs the arms-for-hostages finding ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Reagan signed a retroactive, backdated finding authorizing CIA assistance in shipping arms to Iran to free American hostages. It made Casey the man ultimately responsible for the deal. ●●

1985 “If one is a chosen person, then that means something. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “If one is a chosen person, then that means something. But if one is a Russian peasant, then that counts for nothing.” *In 1985 the State Department published a number of key Solar... ●●

1985 Prologue 1. Interview with Allan Ryan, April 18, 1985. For rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Prologue 1. Interview with Allan Ryan, April 18, 1985. For description of events in this section, see author’s notes on August 16, 1983, press conference. ●●

1985 37. 1985 GAO Report, pp. 32–34. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 37. 1985 GAO Report, pp. 32–34. ●●

1985 Series of terrorist hijackings and attacks broadcast on television candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Multiple terrorist attacks occurred during 1985, including TWA Flight 847 hijacking, broadcast live on American television. ●●

1985 Soviets deploy Spetsnaz to seal the Afghan-Pakistan border ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Soviet Fortieth Army deployed Spetsnaz special forces and intelligence teams in 1985 to try to seal the Afghan-Pakistan border against CIA supply flows. ●●

1985 CIA considers endorsing bin Laden Arab volunteer program rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When CIA officials learned of bin Laden and Islamic groups recruiting Arab volunteers for the Afghan war, some cold warriors favored expanding the program. ●●

1985 Late in the summer of 1985, after a twenty-four-year Morgan career,... candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Behind the title of international private banking, Morgans and other banks helped wealthy Latin Americans to invest in offshore trusts and investment companies. These devices could aid the unscrupulous in dodging taxes. In the 1970s, Morgan Guaran... ●●

1985 At a dinner at the Connaught hotel in early 1985, Christopher Reeve... candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Morgan Grenfell’s balloon was finally punctured by the Guinness scandal, which convulsed Britain and focused more anger against the City than had any scandal since the “rascally stock jobbers” of the eighteenth century. It started with an exceptio... ●●

1985 In June 1985, advised by Tony Richmond-Watson of Morgan Grenfell, S... candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Morgan Grenfell’s balloon was finally punctured by the Guinness scandal, which convulsed Britain and focused more anger against the City than had any scandal since the “rascally stock jobbers” of the eighteenth century. It started with an exceptio... ●●

1985 Morgan Stanley names Eric Gleacher M&A chief ai_extracted 1 cit. no story CHAPTER THIRTY-FIVE BULL WALL Street in the Reagan era self-consciously retraced the experience of the 1920s. Commentators noted eerie parallels between the decades—a booming stock market, Republican tax cuts, a Latin American debt crisis, fluctu... ●●

1985 Ronald Perelman acquires Revlon ai_extracted 1 cit. no story CHAPTER THIRTY-FIVE BULL WALL Street in the Reagan era self-consciously retraced the experience of the 1920s. Commentators noted eerie parallels between the decades—a booming stock market, Republican tax cuts, a Latin American debt crisis, fluctu... ●●

1985 Morgan Stanley and CIGNA create leveraged buyout fund ai_extracted 1 cit. no story With its unerring instinct for profitable activities, Morgan Stanley noted the LBO profits at First Boston and Merrill Lynch. In 1985, it joined with CIGNA Insurance to create a leveraged buyout fund. It struck spectacular deals that made merger p... ●●

1985 After its Valium patent expired in 1985, it needed new products in ... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The bank knew its genteel image hurt in the slash-and-burn takeover game. As Bob Engel said, “When a chairman wakes up in the middle of the night with a phone call from someone saying, ‘We want to buy your company,’ he thinks of Morgan Stanley ins... ●●

1985 FB, May 20, 1985; Hamilton, Financial Revolution, p rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story NOTES PROLOGUE 1. FB, May 20, 1985; Hamilton, Financial Revolution, p. 80. ●●

1985 Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1985 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Vazquez, Josefina Zoraida, and Lorenzo Meyer. The United States and Mexico. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1985. ●●

1985 Neil Postman publishes Amusing Ourselves to Death ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Neil Postman's media criticism book examining the decline of discourse in the Age of Television was first published by Viking. The work compares Orwell's and Huxley's visions for the future, arguing Huxley was more accurate in predicting how entertainment would pacify populations. ●●

1985 New York Times reports Professor Charles Pine named Professor of the Year rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On February 7, 1985, The New York Times reported that Professor Charles Pine of Rutgers University's Newark campus was named Professor of the Year by the Council for the Support and Advancement of Education. Pine attributed his success to entertainment techniques including gimmicks and physical comedy. ●●

1985 It was not until March 17, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story It was not until March 17, 1985 that the Stalker struck again. ●●

1985 When Gorbachev assumed office in 1985, he was the leader of a nuclear superpower which was in a stat rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When Gorbachev assumed office in 1985, he was the leader of a nuclear superpower which was in a state of economic and social decay. ●●

1985 Gorbachev becomes Soviet General Secretary ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This collapse would have seemed fantastic in March 1985, when Gorbachev was anointed General Secretary. ●●

1985 Clue film released ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Jonathan Lynn and John Landis's Clue, a board-game adaptation, was released with a 15 million budget but garnered only 14 million at box office. ●●

1985 1985: In the March 1985 issue of Dr. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story recursive acronym for his new operating system, GNU, which stood for GNU’s Not UNIX. In the March 1985 issue of Dr. Dobb’s Journal , a publication that sprang out of the Homebrew Computer Club and Peo ●●

1985 1985: “Our big bet, even back in 1985, was what we called communit... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ce was not games or published content; it was a yearning for connection. “Our big bet, even back in 1985, was what we called community,” he recounted. “Now people refer to it as social media. We thoug ●●

1985 1985: So did Apple after Jobs was ousted in 1985. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ailed. After inventing the transistor, Bell Labs went adrift. So did Apple after Jobs was ousted in 1985. Most of the successful innovators and entrepreneurs in this book had one thing in common: they ●●

1985 1985: ating system, GNU, which stood for GNU’s Not UNIX. In the March 1985 i rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ating system, GNU, which stood for GNU’s Not UNIX. In the March 1985 issue of Dr. Dobb’s Journal , a publication that sprang out of ●●

1985 1985: blished content; it was a yearning for connection. “Our big bet, even rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story blished content; it was a yearning for connection. “Our big bet, even back in 1985, was what we called community,” he recounted. “Now people refer to ●●

1985 1985: r inventing the transistor, Bell Labs went adrift. So did Apple after rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story r inventing the transistor, Bell Labs went adrift. So did Apple after Jobs was ousted in 1985. Most of the successful innovators and entreprene ●●

1985 translated at the time as “God is clever, but not dishonest” rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “Every little door knob, every little gargoyle, every little piece of stained glass that has a word on it, was something that Veblen personally superv ●●

1985 Barricelli drew a parallel between computing and biology rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1985, Barricelli drew a parallel between computing and biology, but he put the analogy the other way: “If humans, instead of transmitting to each o ●●

1985 tually fired him for criticizing their badly compromised handling of his case. See Chris Christianse rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story tually fired him for criticizing their badly compromised handling of his case. See Chris Christiansen, “Keeping In With The Generals,” New Statesman, January 4, 1985. 119. We believe that the same dichotomization applies in the domestic sphere. For ●●

1985 Thailand. On the brutal treatment of many of the estimated 10.7 million child laborers in Thailand, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Thailand. On the brutal treatment of many of the estimated 10.7 million child laborers in Thailand, see Human Rights in Thailand Report 9.1. (January–March 1985) (Coordinating Group for Religion in Society, Bangkok); Thai Development Newsletter 3.1 1 ●●

1985 d how they resolved them, and similar concerns elsewhere, see Chomsky, Towards a New Cold War, chapt rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story d how they resolved them, and similar concerns elsewhere, see Chomsky, Towards a New Cold War, chapter 13. 90. Nayan Chanda, FEER, November 1, 1984; November 7, 1985, with minor modifications, their general position from early on in phase III. 91. ●●

1985 Murdoch)4 8,460 377 170 3,822 New York Times 1,405 256 132 1,... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story (Murdoch)4 8,460 377 170 3,822 New York Times 1,405 256 132 1,565 Reader’s Digest5 NA 75–110 (1985) NA 1,400 (1985) Scripps-Howard6 NA NA NA 1,062 Storer7 1,242 68 (—17) 537 ●●

1985 WNET loses Gulf and Western funding over documentary ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Public-television station WNET lost its corporate funding from Gulf + Western in 1985 after the station showed the documentary “Hungry for Profit,” which contains material critical of multinational co ●●

1985 This is a compilation of all appearances on the news hour concerning t... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story * This is a compilation of all appearances on the news hour concerning the Bulgarian Connection (3), the shooting down of the Korean airliner KAL 007 (5), and terrorism, defense, and arms control (33) ●●

1985 The main theme of its sponsored studies and conferences has been the f... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The main theme of its sponsored studies and conferences has been the failure of the media to portray business accurately and to give adequate weight to the business point of view,101 but it underwrite ●●

1985 and Michael Kaufman, of the Times, twice manages to drag in the plot t... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 31, 1985]), and Michael Kaufman, of the Times, twice manages to drag in the plot to kill the pope, which the U.S. ●●

1985 along with a child, who was tortured) 5 (6.4) 80.0 (6.8) — — — ... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 6, 1985 (along with a child, who was tortured) 5 (6.4) 80.0 (6.8) — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 The media coverage is for an 18-month period from the time of the first report of the victi ●●

1985 The law group described Guatemala in 1985 as “a country where the grea... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The law group described Guatemala in 1985 as “a country where the greater part of the people live in permanent fear.”58 In the case of Nicaragua, we repeat the central fact that differentiates it fro ●●

1985 which accurately summarizes the contents, although they contain an und... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 10, 1985)—which accurately summarizes the contents, although they contain an undercurrent of reserved final judgment. ●●

1985 In what must be one of the low points of his journalistic career, in a... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In what must be one of the low points of his journalistic career, in an article of December 27, 1985 (“Guatemala Vote Heartens Nicaragua Parties”), Kinzer even implies that the Guatemala election esta ●●

1985 Wanted for several crimes, Pazienza had fled Italy, and in 1985 he res... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Wanted for several crimes, Pazienza had fled Italy, and in 1985 he resided in exile in New York City. ●●

1985 Howe explained that “we opposed the war because we believed, as Stanle... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Howe explained that “we opposed the war because we believed, as Stanley Hoffman [sic] has written, that ‘Washington could “save” the people of South Vietnam and Cambodia from Communism only at a cost ●●

1985 Third UN World Conference on Women in Nairobi ai_extracted 1 cit. no story An important battle occurred in Nairobi in 1985 at the third UN World Conference on Women. ●●

1985 Crane, “Ideology and Politics at Mexico City: The United States at the 1984 International Confere... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Crane, “Ideology and Politics at Mexico City: The United States at the 1984 International Conference on Population,” Population and Development Review 11 (1985): 12; Hartmann, Reproductive Rights a... ●●

1985 “Report of the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achieve- ments of the United Nations D... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “Report of the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achieve- ments of the United Nations Decade for Women,” July 1985, www.un.org/esa/go- pher-data/conf/fwcw/nfls/nfls.en. ●●

1985 It appears that Mad Mike Hoare was made rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story It appears that Mad Mike Hoare was made a scapegoat, for he was imprisoned—an action he called a “double-cross”, and whi ●●

1985 33 And in 1985, the State Department had rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 33 And in 1985, the State Department had to go to great lengths to head off a White House-sponsored plan for a joint US- ●●

1985 France sinks Greenpeace's Rainbow Warrior ai_extracted 1 cit. no story It should be noted that France—the United States’ chief “anti-terrorism” partner—in 1985 deliberately sank the Greenpeac ●●

1985 The American multinational, after a century of enriching rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The American multinational, after a century of enriching itself in the country, and in viola- tion of a contract with th ●●

1985 Daniel Jacobowitz, a military “psy-ops” specialist, described the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Daniel Jacobowitz, a military “psy-ops” specialist, described the media campaign in a March 1985 “confidential-sensitive ●●

1985 Kassar was a known associate of those reputed rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Kassar was a known associate of those reputed to be responsible for the 1985 Christmas massacres in the Rome and Vienna ●●

1985 On sev- eral occasions in the late ’80s, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On sev- eral occasions in the late ’80s, the Kabul government announced that Americans had been killed in the fighting,4 ●●

1985 ”€7 Or a US congressman’s charge in 1985 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ”€7 Or a US congressman’s charge in 1985 that the Soviets hadused booby-trapped toys to maim Afghan children,®8 the iden ●●

1985 The same article reports that Edward Everett Briggs, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The same article reports that Edward Everett Briggs, who had been US Ambassador to Panama, had told Bush of Noriega’s co ●●

1985 KILLING HOPE Phillip Bonosky, Washington’s Secret War Against rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story KILLING HOPE Phillip Bonosky, Washington’s Secret War Against Afghanistan (International Publishers, New York, 1985), pp ●●

1985 War or conflict rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Ferrell, Woodrow Wilson and World War I (New York: Harper & Row, 1985), p ●●

1985 Quantum launches Q-Link for Commodore users ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Jim Kimsey's reconfigured company launched the Q-Link online service, the forerunner of AOL. ●●

1985 Steve Jobs is ousted from Apple ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Jobs left Apple after a power struggle, a rupture the book compares to Xerox's earlier failure to commercialize its inventions. ●●

July 1985 State of emergency and township uprisings 0 cit. The government declared a state of emergency amid escalating township uprisings, labor strikes, and consumer boycotts organized by the United Democratic Front and allied unions. Security forces carried out mass detentions without trial, and township violence intensified through the late 1980s. International sanctions and disinvestment accelerated sharply during this period as global pressure on the apartheid state grew. politics / society ●●

1985 James Goldsmith raids Crown Zellerbach 0 cit. Sir James Goldsmith won control of the paper company Crown Zellerbach in a hostile takeover and then broke it up, selling off timberland and mills. As with his earlier raid on Diamond International, the profit came mainly from dismantling the company rather than running it as a going concern. The deal reinforced Goldsmith's reputation, and drew renewed criticism from unions and some lawmakers, as a leading exponent of breakup-for-profit takeovers. economy ●●

January 1985 Carl Icahn takes control of TWA 0 cit. Carl Icahn won a hostile takeover fight for Trans World Airlines (TWA), taking the airline private in 1988 through a leveraged buyout financed largely with debt. Icahn later sold off TWA's most valuable international routes and its London Heathrow slots to other airlines, and the airline itself filed for bankruptcy in 1992 and again in 1995 under the debt load. Icahn's defenders said he kept an otherwise doomed airline alive longer than it would have survived; labor unions and many industry observers said he stripped its best assets and left an emptied-out carrier behind. economy ●●●

1985 Blackstone Group founded 0 cit. Peter Peterson and Stephen Schwarzman founded Blackstone as a small mergers-and-acquisitions advisory firm; it soon expanded into leveraged buyouts and became, over the following decades, the largest private equity firm in the world by assets under management. Blackstone's rise paralleled the broader shift of the buyout business from opportunistic 1980s raiders into large, institutionalized private equity firms managing pension and endowment money. The firm's scale later made it a frequent reference point in debates over private equity's effect on the companies and workers it acquires. economy ●●

c. April 1985 Kenneth Newman advises officers to stay away from lodges 0 cit. Commissioner Kenneth Newman advises Metropolitan Police officers to distance themselves from Masonic lodges, reflecting growing institutional unease about how lodge membership was perceived. The advice was not a formal ban and was not universally followed. politics ●

c. 1985 UN Whitaker Report names the events a genocide 0 cit. A United Nations report by Special Rapporteur Benjamin Whitaker, reviewing the history of genocide for the UN Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, lists the German campaign against the Herero as one of the earliest attempts at genocide in the twentieth century. The report is among the first formal international documents to apply the term to the events of 1904 to 1908. diplomacy / politics ●●

15 November 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement 0 cit. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Irish Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald signed an agreement giving the Irish government a formal consultative role in Northern Ireland's governance for the first time, while confirming that no change in Northern Ireland's status could occur without majority consent. Unionists reacted with fury, staging mass protests under the slogan "Ulster Says No." The agreement is generally seen as an important step toward the later peace process, establishing the principle of Irish involvement that would shape subsequent negotiations. diplomacy / politics ●●

20 July 1985 MI6 exfiltrates Oleg Gordievsky from Moscow 0 cit. SIS smuggled its top Soviet asset, KGB colonel Oleg Gordievsky, out of Moscow in the boot of a diplomatic car after he came under suspicion, in an operation codenamed PIMLICO. Gordievsky had been supplying British intelligence with high-level KGB material for over a decade. The operation is regarded as one of MI6's most successful Cold War exfiltrations. diplomacy / politics ●●

c. 1 January 1985 Putin's posting to Dresden 0 cit. Putin was posted as a KGB officer to Dresden in East Germany, where he worked in liaison with the East German security service, the Stasi. He witnessed the collapse of the communist bloc and the fall of the Berlin Wall from close range in 1989. Accounts of his exact duties and rank vary, and the posting is often cited as formative for his later politics. The starting year is approximate. diplomacy / politics ●

14 June 1985 Schengen Agreement 0 cit. Five states signed an agreement aboard a boat on the Moselle to gradually abolish checks at their shared borders. It grew into the Schengen Area, where people can travel between member countries without passport controls. diplomacy / politics / society ●●●

c. 1985 From the B-1 bomber to the F-35 0 cit. A lineage of huge, long-running weapons programs runs from the B-1 bomber of the 1980s to the F-35 fighter, whose lifetime cost is estimated in the trillions of dollars. These flagship contracts, spread across many states and suppliers, show how a single program becomes an economic and political institution. technology / war ●●

October 1985 The Baker Plan tries growth through more lending 0 cit. US Treasury Secretary James Baker proposes that debtor nations grow their way out of trouble with fresh loans in exchange for market reforms. Banks proved reluctant to lend more, and the plan largely failed to ease the burden. Debt kept mounting, setting the stage for a different approach. diplomacy / economy ●

August 1985 Washington uses its dues as leverage 0 cit. As the largest single funder of the UN, the United States began withholding part of its assessed dues to force changes, starting with the Kassebaum Amendment demanding weighted voting on budgets. Over the following decades unpaid US arrears ran into the billions. The episodes showed how the biggest contributors could bend the organization through the power of the purse. economy / politics ●●

c. 1985 The National Security Archive is founded 0 cit. Journalists and scholars established the National Security Archive at George Washington University to obtain and publish declassified US government records. Using Freedom of Information Act requests and lawsuits, it built one of the largest nongovernmental collections of formerly secret documents. Its work has forced the release of files on coups, nuclear policy, and covert operations. politics / society ●●●

1985 The National Security Archive builds a counter-library 0 cit. Scholars and journalists founded the National Security Archive at George Washington University to use the Freedom of Information Act at scale and gather declassified documents into a public collection. It became an independent library of the secrets the government had been forced to release. Its filings and lawsuits have pried open records on wars, coups, and surveillance. politics / society ●●

1985 The murder of DEA agent Kiki Camarena 0 cit. Mexico's Guadalajara cartel kidnapped, tortured, and killed DEA agent Enrique Kiki Camarena. The killing poisoned US-Mexico relations for years and exposed how deeply traffickers had penetrated Mexican police and politics. politics / society ●●

c. 1985 Resettlement crawls through the 1980s 0 cit. The government sets a target of resettling 162,000 families, but by the end of the 1980s only a fraction of that number has been placed on land. The willing-seller rule means the state can buy mostly what settlers choose to sell, often poorer or scattered farms. Land ownership stays heavily concentrated among white commercial farmers a decade after independence. economy / society ●●

c. 1985 Israel becomes a major arms exporter 0 cit. Israel builds a large defense industry around firms such as Israel Aerospace Industries, Elbit Systems, and Rafael. SIPRI data ranks it for years among the world's top ten arms exporters, selling drones, missiles, radar, and electronics worldwide. Arms exports become a significant part of the economy and a tool of Israeli foreign policy. economy / war ●●

February 1985 Mwakenya emerges as an underground movement 0 cit. The underground network that had operated as the December Twelve Movement, and briefly as the Communist Party of Kenya, adopted the name Mwakenya in February 1985. The name is a Swahili acronym for Muungano wa Wazalendo wa Kuikomboa Kenya, the Union of Patriots for the Liberation of Kenya. It described itself as a clandestine, left-leaning movement working to overthrow the Moi dictatorship, and it circulated the underground paper Mpatanishi. politics ●●●

c. 1985 Western capitals choose stability over democracy 0 cit. Through the 1980s the United States and Britain kept backing Moi with aid and diplomatic cover even as his government jailed critics and crushed dissent. The calculation was that a stable, pro-Western Kenya mattered more than its internal repression. That support was open policy, weighed against a hostile Cold War map, rather than secret control of the regime. diplomacy / politics ●●

1985 Rotary launches the PolioPlus campaign 0 cit. Rotary International began PolioPlus, a pledge to immunize the world's children against polio. Rotary joined the World Health Organization, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, UNICEF, and later the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation in the Global Polio Eradication Initiative. Their combined effort helped cut polio cases worldwide by more than 99 percent over the following decades. diplomacy / society ●●●

1985 Congress triples the CIA's Afghan budget to $250 million ai_extracted 1 cit. Spurred by Representative Charlie Wilson, Congress in late 1984 shoveled leftover Pentagon money into the Afghan program, raising its 1985 budget to $250 million, as much as all prior years combined. With the Saudi match, the CIA could spend roughly $500 million arming the mujahedin. ●●

1985 Reagan signs NSDD-166 to escalate the Afghan covert war ai_extracted 1 cit. In March 1985 President Reagan signed National Security Decision Directive 166, shifting U.S. policy from merely harassing Soviet forces to driving them out. It authorized satellite intelligence, secure communications, advanced weapons, and CIA unilateral agents for the mujahedin. ●●●

22 September 1985 The Plaza Accord drives the yen sharply higher 0 cit. At the Plaza Hotel in New York, finance officials of the US, Japan, West Germany, France, and Britain agreed to push the dollar down and the yen up. Within about two years the yen roughly doubled in value against the dollar. The strong yen squeezed Japanese exporters and triggered a policy response at home. diplomacy / economy ●●●●

1985 Oral Tradition as History names the traps 0 cit. Vansina's mature statement drew a line between a tradition that records real events and one that serves as a charter, a story that explains and justifies the present. He named the ways memory bends: feedback, where later ideas seep back into old accounts; telescoping, where generations collapse together; and structural amnesia, where inconvenient ancestors drop out. The point was not to reject oral history but to read it with its distortions in view. culture / society ●●●●

c. 1985 Archaeology overturns the "foreign colonists" story of the Swahili 0 cit. Colonial-era writers had cast the Swahili stone towns as colonies planted by Persian or Arab settlers. Excavation at Shanga and other Lamu sites showed instead an indigenous, Bantu-speaking African society that adopted Islam and Indian Ocean trade on its own terms. The older account is now treated as a myth of foreign origin. ●●

1985 Uhuru graduates from Amherst after St Marys schooling 3 cit. Uhuru was educated at St Marys School in Nairobi and then at Amherst College in Massachusetts, where official Kenyan biographical pages and later profiles describe him as studying political science and economics. The route placed him in the private-school and overseas-university pipeline of Kenya elite families, unlike the mission-to-Makerere path of many earlier independence-era politicians. culture / politics / society ●●●

c. 1985 Uhuru returns to the Kenyatta family business empire 3 cit. After Amherst, Uhuru returned to Kenya and worked in business before his rapid move into national politics. Profiles describe interests around tourism, hotels, commercial farming and the wider Kenyatta family corporate network, later including Brookside Dairy. This matters because his public image always carried two realities at once: a politician seeking mass votes and a scion of one of Kenyas wealthiest families. economy / politics / society ●●●

11 February 1986 First Battle of al-Faw wikidata 0 cit. no story 1986 battle ●●

c. 1986 to 1990 Japanese capital floods world markets ai_extracted 1 cit. From around 1986 until 1990, unprecedented Japanese overseas investment flowed into real estate and corporate takeovers worldwide; in 1987 net long-term foreign investment was almost twice the record current account surplus. ●●●

1986 Japan buys three-quarters of U.S. Treasury auctions ai_extracted 1 cit. At the 1986 peak of portfolio outflows, almost 90 percent of Japanese foreign securities investment went into U.S. Treasury bonds, and Japanese money absorbed 75 percent of all Treasury bonds auctioned that year. ●●●

c. 1986 Banks aggressively expand credit creation ai_extracted 1 cit. From about 1986 Japanese banks aggressively expanded credit creation, with city bank loan growth averaging about 15 percent in the late 1980s while national income grew only half as fast, fueling unproductive speculation. ●●●

December 1986 Window guidance quotas tightened amid land price surge ai_extracted 1 cit. The Nikkei reported in December 1986 that window guidance quotas were tightening and that the BoJ was aware of surging land prices, excess liquidity, and strong bank lending to the real estate sector. ●●