Events, Verisoph

1900 Yamagata excludes Ito, forms second cabinet (1900) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1900 Yamagata won a decisive victory over Ito and formed a second Cabinet from which the Ito group was completely excluded, and he made the army and navy ministries require active officers. ●●

1900 Eastern Establishment dominates both U.S. parties since 1900 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley asserts that a semi-aristocratic Eastern Establishment had been the dominant element in both American parties since 1900, practicing the political techniques of William C. Whitney and J. P. Morgan. ●●

1900 Rhodes urges Milner to keep their intimacy hidden ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley says Milner needed an intermediary because he thought it politic to hide his closeness to Rhodes. He quotes Rhodes recalling on 10 April 1900 Milner's line that the less they were seen together the better. ●●

1900 Federation of the Australian colonies takes effect ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Brand's father, as Governor of New South Wales, was among the instigators of Australian federation. The federation of the Australian colonies came into effect in 1900. ●●

1900 Bionomics taught at Indiana University ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto reports that by 1900 Indiana University offered a course called Bionomics, created and taught by president David Starr Jordan, dealing with producing a new evolutionary ruling class. ●●

1900 Thomas Davidson publishes 'History of Education' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto highlights Thomas Davidson's 1900 History of Education, the most talked-about education book of its year. He notes Davidson was also the first president of the Fabian Society and presented education as the highest form of evolution. ●●

1900 Capitalist development indeed produced the "great divergence," led rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Capitalist development indeed produced the "great divergence," led by Great Britain, between the economic power of societies in western Europe and els... ●●

1900 In 1900, with the dowager empress Cixi favoring candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1900, with the dowager empress Cixi favoring war against foreigners and the military and admiriistration hesitant and inef fectual in containing th... ●●

1900 Japan joins the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Japan was conciliatory to ward its rival empires and j oined them in 1900 in putting down the Boxer Rebellion in China. ●●

1900 The covert coups of the Cold War era were carried rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The covert coups of the Cold War era were carried out quite differently from the invasions and stagemanaged revolutions that the United States used in (1900) ●●

1900 The most shocking death was Coster’s, in March 1900, at age rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The most shocking death was Coster’s, in March 1900, at age forty-eight. He contracted flu or pneumonia and died within a week. ●●

1900 Mixing sympathy with outrage, the New York Times charged tha rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Mixing sympathy with outrage, the New York Times charged that the tasks piled upon Coster had grown “far heavier than any one man ought to bear, or could bear with safety.” Naming Morgan partners who ... ●●

1900 Generous contributions by Morgan and other bankers to the ca rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Generous contributions by Morgan and other bankers to the campaign of William McKinley—23 Wall Street was hung with banners in his support—were thought instrumental in persuading him to champion the g... ●●

1900 Sir Clinton Dawkins called the chancellor, Hicks-Beach, “not rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Sir Clinton Dawkins called the chancellor, Hicks-Beach, “notoriously stupid and most unbusinesslike.”13 The Boer War financing of 1900 had disquieting effects in the City. ●●

1900 In 1900, he signed up as a partner Sir Clinton E rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1900, he signed up as a partner Sir Clinton E. Dawkins, a distinguished civil servant who had just completed a tour of duty in Egypt and was about to become a finance minister in India. ●●

1900 They wanted to avenge a 10-percent wage increase granted the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story They wanted to avenge a 10-percent wage increase granted the miners in 1900—a deal that Pierpont had helped to broker—and reacted to the strikers with feudal ferocity. By the fall of 1902, schools wer... ●●

1900 JPMJ, Box 6, Folder 3, letter to Frances Tracy Morgan, January 2, 1900 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 45. Winkler, Morgan the Magnificent, p. 284. ●●

1900 Rockefeller regarded his fortune as a public trust rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Rockefeller regarded his fortune as a public trust, not as a private indulgence, and the pressure to dispose of it grew imperative in the early 1900s as his Standard Oil stock and other investments appreciated fantastically. ●●

1900 Rockefellers rebuild the Spelman Seminary campus ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1900, the Rockefeller family had virtually made over the Spelman campus, paying for a new hospital, two dormitories, a dining hall and kitchen, a power plant, and a residence for the school president. ●●

1900 After he took over the class from Charles rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After he took over the class from Charles Evans Hughes in 1900, the number of young men in attendance at once quadrupled from 50 to 200 and ultimately reached 500, including many bookkeepers, clerks, salesmen, and students. ●●

1900 With Archbold at the helm, returns soared from rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story With Archbold at the helm, returns soared from 21 to 27 percent between 1900 and 1906. This might have been smart business but it was very poor politics: The trust was booking record profits just when it could least afford to enrage public opinion. ●●

1900 Oil Industry Development rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1892, Gates joyously proclaimed to Rockefeller, “Our denomination has a larger, better distributed, better organized, and more efficient educational property than any other denomination in Ameri... ●●

1900 Rockefeller and Carnegie Philanthropy candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Morgan decided to create a steel trust in late 1900, he knew he would have to tangle with two men who were confirmed cynics about Wall Street: Carnegie, master of the steel mills, and Rockefeller, ... ●●

1900 Standard Oil Asset Acquisition rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1900, Rockefeller had acquired 1,600 acres and eventually the Pocantico Hills estate expanded to 3,000 acres, threaded by dozens of miles of winding roads and bridle paths. Rockefeller could tol... ●●

1900 Rothschild New Year Celebration at Mentmore rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A New Year's Eve gathering at Mentmore brings together leading Liberals and Conservatives to celebrate the Rothschild family. Rosebery's emotional toast moves Natty to tears. ●●

1900 leaped into the first rank of world banking, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story leaped into the first rank of world banking, its balance sheet expanding from assets of 46 million marks in 1900, to 127 million marks in 1914. ●●

1900 Viewed solely in terms of political culture and rhetoric aro rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Viewed solely in terms of political culture and rhetoric around 1900, this is a hard claim to detect: Russian and Austrian anti-Semitism was at least as strong as German, French chauvinism as marked a ●●

1900 The empire also underwent much industrialization in these de rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The empire also underwent much industrialization in these decades, though the pace of change was perhaps swifter before 1900 than after. Its coal production by 1914 was a respectable 47 million tons, ●●

1900 As the international tensions built up in the decade or so a rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As the international tensions built up in the decade or so after 1900, the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s strategical position appeared parlous indeed. Its internal divisions threatened to split the countr ●●

1900 Despite the Triple Alliance, the tensions with Italy became rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Despite the Triple Alliance, the tensions with Italy became greater after 1900, and on several occasions Conrad advocated a military blow against this southern neighbor; even if his proposal was firml ●●

1900 Between 1871 and 1900, France had added 3 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Between 1871 and 1900, France had added 3.5 million square miles to its existing colonial territories, and it possessed indisputably the largest overseas empire after Britain’s. Although the commerce ●●

1900 As the twentieth century approached, therefore, the pace rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Although the major development of the fifty years after 1900 can thus be seen as the coming of a bipolar world, with its consequent crisis for the “middle” Powers (as referred in the titles of Chapter ●●

1900 1900 Economic rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story in 1900 = 100) 472.6 178.4 Because of the “lag time” between turning this economic potential into military effectiveness, the immediate consequences of the American entry into the... ●●

1900 1900 European rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Despite superficial fascist indoctrination, nothing in Italian society and political culture had altered between 1900 and 1930 to make the army a more attractive career to talented... ●●

1900 1900 Diplomatic Agreement rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The coalitions which Britain had woven together to counter Napoleon, the successful ententes and rapprochements which had been effected in the years after 1900, could no longer be ... ●●

1900 1900 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the Social Darwinistic and imperialistic atmosphere that had prevailed around 1900, it was easy to think that all power was being concentrated in fewer and fewer capitals of the... ●●

1900 Eight-Nation Alliance invades China ai_extracted 1 cit. no story International military force loots Beijing and other Chinese cities, further cementing sense of national victimhood. ●●

1900 hat what should have mattered to them most was Bri... candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story hat what should have mattered to them most was British neutrality in a Continental war. In October 1900, Salisbury’s poor health forced him to give up ●●

1900 1900, that figure had declined to 9.7 percent. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1900, that figure had declined to 9.7 percent. ●●

1900 Rutherford discovers thorium radioactive emanation ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Rutherford reported the discovery of a radioactive gas emanating from the radioactive element thorium. ●●

1900 1900: Howard Aiken (1900–1973) at Harvard in 1945. John Mauchly (1907–80) ci rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Howard Aiken (1900–1973) at Harvard in 1945. John Mauchly (1907–80) circa 1945. J. Presper E ●●

1900 Event of 1900 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story With no trace of self-consciousness, he presented the war that had established America as a great power in two oceans as a uniquely unselfish mission. “The American flag has not been planted in foreign soil to acquire more territory,” he explained in ●●

1900 Summer vacation in Melchtal rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Einstein arrived at end of July 1900 for family vacation in Melchtal, Swiss Alps, carrying physics books including Kirchhoff. Family tensions arose regarding his relationship with Mileva Mari. ●●

1900 Weber refuses to hire Einstein at Zurich Polytechnic ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Einstein attempted to get a position as assistant to a professor at the Zurich Polytechnic in August 1900, but Professor Weber refused to hire him due to his impudence. He remained unemployed. ●●

1900 Foundations of Constitutional Government in Modern Japan, 1868–1900 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Foundations of Constitutional Government in Modern Japan, 1868–1900. ●●

1900 —Democratic Party (U.S.) National Platform, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story —Democratic Party (U.S.) National Platform, 1900 Following its bombing of Iraq in 1991, the United States wound up with military bases in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman and the United Arab Emirates ●●

1900 1900 - China - May rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1900 - China - May 24 to September 28: To protect foreign lives during the Boxer rising, particularly at Peking ●●

1900 Behind it was Taylor’s generosity of spirit: for instance, when his Mission rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Behind it was Taylor’s generosity of spirit: for instance, when his Mission suffered alongside others in the next great outburst of Chinese fury against foreigners, the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, he refused the compensation extorted from the imperial g ●●

1900 65 The Pope’s unhappy equivocations contrast with the conduct of a Catholic rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 65 The Pope’s unhappy equivocations contrast with the conduct of a Catholic Church leader in an infinitely more dangerous personal situation: Andrei Sheptyts’kyi, Greek Catholic Metropolitan of Galician Ukraine since 1900, when it had been Habsburg t ●●

1900 Liberal Protestantism after 1900 chose a very different path from either the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Liberal Protestantism after 1900 chose a very different path from either the Holiness/Keswick styles of the conservatives, or the proliferation of identities in the new Churches ●●

1900 Catholic in outlook and Spanish or Portuguese in language in 1900, from rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Catholic in outlook and Spanish or Portuguese in language in 1900, from the first few decades of the century, Latin America was gaining a Pentecostal presence which marched in step with an increasingly diverse immigrant community, but which also rapi ●●

1900 In 1900, 55 per cent of British children attended Sunday School; the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1900, 55 per cent of British children attended Sunday School; the figure was still 24 per cent in 1960, but 9 per cent in 1980 and 4 per cent in 2000 ●●

1900 In 1900, the Orthodox were estimated as 21 per cent of the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1900, the Orthodox were estimated as 21 per cent of the world’s Christians; that had declined to 11 per cent at the beginning of the twenty-first century, while the Roman Catholic proportion, thanks to its growth in the south of the globe, had ris ●●

1900 Owain Hughes, ‘Anti-Catholicism in Wales, 1900-60’, JEH, 53 (2002), 312-25, at 322 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Owain Hughes, ‘Anti-Catholicism in Wales, 1900-60’, JEH, 53 (2002), 312-25, at 322 ●●

1900 Founding or establishment candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story And so, when more than 1900 S&Ls went belly-up in the Great Depression, Herbert Hoover—and a most willing Congress— created the Federal Home Loan Bank ●●

1900 In fact, most of the 35 firms had been formed before 1900 and a sizable number b rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In fact, most of the 35 firms had been formed before 1900 and a sizable number before 1890 ●●

1900 Indeed the only new firm of this type to be formed after 1900 was California Pac candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Indeed the only new firm of this type to be formed after 1900 was California Packing (Del Monte), a 1916 merger of local canning companies that built ●●

1900 All but one, Sharon Steel, is in table 8, and that firm was founded in 1900 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story All but one, Sharon Steel, is in table 8, and that firm was founded in 1900 ●●

1900 To operate his national enterprise, Vail quickly created an administrative struc candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story To operate his national enterprise, Vail quickly created an administrative structure based on legal changes instituted in 1900 ●●

1900 By 1900 the names of many integrated, multifunctional enterprises had become hou... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1900 the names of many integrated, multifunctional enterprises had become household words ●●

1900 By 1900 the American Tobacco Company had come to dominate that industry complete... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1900 the American Tobacco Company had come to dominate that industry completely, except for the making of cigars ●●

1900 Nevertheless, the giant, integrated industrial enterprise remained the exception... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Nevertheless, the giant, integrated industrial enterprise remained the exception until after 1900 ●●

1900 After 1900 National Biscuit continued to compete in the new manner, relying on b... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After 1900 National Biscuit continued to compete in the new manner, relying on brand names, advertising, and scale economies ●●

1900 Integration Completed An overview: 1900–1917 As the new century opened, patter... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Integration Completed An overview: 1900–1917 As the new century opened, patterns of success and failure were only just beginning to appear ●●

1900 But after 1900 the modern multiunit industrial enterprise became a standard inst... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story But after 1900 the modern multiunit industrial enterprise became a standard instrument for managing the production and distribution of goods in America ●●

1900 Even before 1900 a high degree of concentration could be found in many industrie... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Even before 1900 a high degree of concentration could be found in many industries ●●

1900 All three divisions marketed their products through Armour’s nationwide branch h... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story All three divisions marketed their products through Armour’s nationwide branch house organization, which by 1900 numbered 200 houses ●●

1900 Then after 1900 with the opening of new fields in the south and far west, Standa... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Then after 1900 with the opening of new fields in the south and far west, Standard of California and Standard of Louisiana developed similar integrated operations ●●

1900 The appurtenances of professionalism—societies, journals, university training, a... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The appurtenances of professionalism—societies, journals, university training, and specialized consultants—hardly existed in the United States in 1900 ●●

1900 After 1900, however, as the economy, particularly the cities, grew, the demand f... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After 1900, however, as the economy, particularly the cities, grew, the demand for banking services became more acute ●●

1 January 1901 Federation of Australia 0 cit. no story Six British colonies unite as the Commonwealth of Australia, creating a self-governing federation under the Crown. politics ●●●●

1901 Taff Vale decision drives labor into politics ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the Taff Vale case of 1901 the courts held labor unions liable for damages from their economic actions. To overturn this, the working classes turned to political action and founded their own party. ●●

1901 D'Arcy oil concession in Iran ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1901 the shah granted William Knox D'Arcy an exclusive concession to exploit petroleum across Iran except the five provinces bordering Russia. This concession later passed to the Anglo-Persian Oil Company and became a focus of Iranian nationalist grievance. ●●

1901 Gallieni imposes a head tax in Madagascar ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After completing the conquest of Madagascar in 1901, the French general Gallieni imposed a head tax payable only in newly issued Malagasy francs. The aim was to force Malagasy into the money economy and wage labor. ●●

1901 Morgan controlled nearly 70 percent of the steel industry—following the cre... candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Morgan controlled nearly 70 percent of the steel industry—following the creation of US Steel in 1901—and at least one-fifth of all corporations trading on the New York Stock... ●●

1901 Northern Securities railroad trust formed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Northern Securities, one of the nation’s largest railroad trusts, had been formed by Morgan, Harriman, and Hill in 1901. The president’s power play might have been avoided if... ●●

1901 Czech-language officials appointed in Bohemia and Moravia ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Czech language officials appointed in Bohemia and Moravia ●●

1901 Since 1901 a single corporation, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, pri... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Since 1901 a single corporation, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, principally owned by the British government, had held a monopoly on the extraction, re (1901) ●●

1901 Northern Pacific corner triggers Wall Street panic ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The New York Herald banner headline of May 9, 1901, summed up the popular view: “GIANTS OF WALL STREET, IN FIERCE BATTLE FOR MASTERY, PRECIPITATE CRASH THAT BRINGS RUIN TO HORDE OF PYGMIES.”63 The de... ●●

1901 Before he joined the bank in 1901, he was already an empire- rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Before he joined the bank in 1901, he was already an empire-building executive at New York Life Insurance. A voluble, glad-handing deal maker, he was an experiment on Pierpont’s part—more chief than I... ●●

1901 In 1901, when she visited Rome, Jack wrote her a letter that rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1901, when she visited Rome, Jack wrote her a letter that poignantly stated his conviction that she had to submit to her fate. Although Pierpont isn’t mentioned, his ghost hovers in the air: Your ... ●●

1901 It wasn’t the first unsolicited takeover in Wall Street history: wh... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Instead of tennis or golf, Greenhill liked solitary sports that tested endurance. Early each morning, he jogged near his Greenwich, Connecticut, home. He was also a motorcycle enthusiast. ●●

1901 JPMI, Box 7, Folder 1, letter to Frances Tracy Morgan, April 3, 1901 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 45. Winkler, Morgan the Magnificent, p. 284. ●●

1901 CHAPTER 24 The Millionaires’ Special In April 1901 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story CHAPTER 24 The Millionaires’ Special In April 1901, a specially chartered train, jammed with millionaires, pulled out of Manhattan and headed down the eastern seaboard for a ten-day tour of black colleges in the South, many of them financed with northern money, culminating in a conference on southern education in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. ●●

1901 Though Rockefeller studiously avoided the campus and visited rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Though Rockefeller studiously avoided the campus and visited only three times (1897, 1901, and 1903), he got little credit for this self-abnegation. The public was quick to pounce on his every move as yet another ruse. ●●

1901 As early as 1901, Rockefeller had realized that rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As early as 1901, Rockefeller had realized that he needed to create a foundation on a scale that dwarfed anything he had done so far, and he toyed with the idea of establishing a benevolent trust: “Let us erect a foundation, a trust, and engage directors who will make it a life work to manage, with our personal cooperation, this business of benevolence properly and effectively.” 4 Frederick Gates revived the idea in June 1906 when he wrote to Rockefeller, “I have lived with this great fortune of yours daily for fifteen years. ●●

1901 For all his panegyrics about Rockefeller’s wisdom, Gates rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story For all his panegyrics about Rockefeller’s wisdom, Gates had some private grievances and was irked by what he saw as his skimpy compensation; the value of his services had been a sore point with him ever since the 1901 Mesabi-ore sale to U.S. ●●

1901 Florida enacts the Flagler divorce law ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On April 9, 1901, a special law was enacted permitting divorce on grounds of incurable insanity—a law known as the Flagler divorce law. Within two weeks, Flagler married Mary Lily Kenan. ●●

1901 Death of Edith's Son Jack candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1901, Edith Rockefeller McCormick's four-year-old son Jack died. The loss was the first of two child deaths within a few years that cast a lasting shadow over her emotional life. ●●

1901 John Schiff, who avoided controversy, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John Schiff, who avoided controversy, said the financial world hadn’t seen such bitterness since Jacob Schiff and Pierpont Morgan vied for the... ●●

1901 In December 1901, Georges married Lucie Kaulla, the... (1901) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In December 1901, Georges married Lucie Kaulla, the daughter of a Stuttgart lawyer. ●●

1901 Manly P. Hall born in Peterborough, Canada ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Manly Palmer Hall, future esoteric philosopher and author, was born in Peterborough, Canada, outside Toronto, to his mother Louise Palmer Hall, a chiropractor and progressive woman. ●●

1901 Crowley's Training in Yoga Discipline rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Crowley began receiving proper training in yoga principles in 1901, which he credits with helping to repair his earlier unsystematic magical practice and establishing proper discipline. ●●

1901 The Bureau of Standards, established by Act of Congress in 1901, is the nation’s rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Bureau of Standards, established by Act of Congress in 1901, is the nation’s physics laboratory, charged with applying science and technology in the national interest and for public benefit. ●●

1901 Event of 1901 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ore traditional powers already sparring over the territories and sea-lanes into which American interests now protruded. THEODORE ROOSEVELT: AMERICA AS A WORLD POWER The first President to grapple systematically with the implications of America’s worl ●●

1901 Roosevelt becomes president after McKinley's assassination ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Roosevelt came into office initially in 1901 on McKinley’s assassination, but he and his party won a decisive majority in the 1904 election, a mandate that he used to great effect. ●●

1901 As the only one of seven siblings to attend university he had completed his studies with a dissertat rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As the only one of seven siblings to attend university he had completed his studies with a dissertation in historical economics and started work in 1901 as a syndic for the light-manufacturing industries of Saxony, where it was his job to lobby for t ●●

1901 1899-1901 - Philippine Islands: To rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1899-1901 - Philippine Islands: To protect American interests following the war with Spain, and to conquerthe islands by defeating the Filipinos in their war for independence ●●

1901 Since 1901, it has been rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Since 1901, it has been a firmly held convention that the Senate should not reject budgets .. ●●

1901 c) Russel Ward, The History rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story c) Russel Ward, The History of Australia: The Twentieth Century, 1901-1975 (London, 1978) pp ●●