Events, Verisoph

1815 The “Middle Powers” The impact of economic and technologica rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The “Middle Powers” The impact of economic and technological change upon the relative position of the Great Powers of continental Europe was much less dramatic in the half-century or so following 181 ●●

1815 There simply was not enough capital, or local demand, or off rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story There simply was not enough capital, or local demand, or official enthusiasm, to produce a transformation; and many a European merchant, craftsman, and handloom weaver would bitterly oppose the adopti ●●

1815 Unlike either the age of Napoleon preceding it or the age of rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Unlike either the age of Napoleon preceding it or the age of Bismarck following it, therefore, the period 1815–1865 internationalized most of its tricky political problems (Belgium, Greece), and frown ●●

1815 If the period 1648–1815 had seen the empire “rising” and “as rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story If the period 1648–1815 had seen the empire “rising” and “asserting itself,”40 that expansion had not eliminated the difficulties under which Vienna labored as it strove to carry out a Great Power rol ●●

1815 On the contrary, the settlement of 1815 compounded these dif rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On the contrary, the settlement of 1815 compounded these difficulties, at least in the longer term. For example, the very fact that the Austrians had fought so frequently against Napoleon and emerged ●●

1815 Despite its losses during the Napoleonic War, the position o rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Despite its losses during the Napoleonic War, the position of France in the half-century following 1815 was significantly better than that of either Prussia or the Habsburg Empire in many respects.48 ●●

1815 The overriding fact about the years 1814–1815, at the power- rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The overriding fact about the years 1814–1815, at the power-political level, was that all of the other great states had shown themselves determined to prevent French attempts to maintain a hegemony ov ●●

1815 Thus, while Prussia acted as guardian to the Rhineland, Aust rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Thus, while Prussia acted as guardian to the Rhineland, Austria strengthened its position in northern Italy, and British influence was expanded in the Iberian peninsula; behind all this lay a large Ru ●●

1815 The Crimean War and the Erosion of Russian Power Russia’s r rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Crimean War and the Erosion of Russian Power Russia’s relative power was to decline the most during the post-1815 decades of international peace and industrialization—although that was not fully ●●

1815 Yet at the economic and technological level, Russia was losi rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Yet at the economic and technological level, Russia was losing ground in an alarming way between 1815 and 1880, at least relative to other powers. This is not to say that there was no economic improve ●●

1815 On the contrary, the post-1815 preference shown by the Great rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On the contrary, the post-1815 preference shown by the Great Powers for ancien régime structures in general could nowhere be more clearly seen than in the social composition, weaponry, and tactics of ●●

1815 Conclusions With the important exception of the American Ci rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Conclusions With the important exception of the American Civil War, the period 1815–1885 had not witnessed any lengthy, mutually exhausting military struggles. The lesser campaigns of this age, like ●●

1815 On the other hand, the relatively stable Pentarchy of the po rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On the other hand, the relatively stable Pentarchy of the post-1815 Concert system was dissolving, not merely because its members were more willing to fight against each other by the 1860s than a few ●●

1815 However, if viewed from other perspectives—say, from the sob rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story However, if viewed from other perspectives—say, from the sober calculations of the British “official mind,”103 or from that of later historians of the collapse of British power—the late nineteenth cen ●●

1815 Introduction This is a book about national and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Great Power struggles which took place between 1660 and 1815, and are covered in Chapter 3, cannot be so easily summarized as a contest between one large bloc and its many rivals. It was in this c ●●

1815 3Finance, Geography, and the Winning of Wars, 1660–1815 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 3Finance, Geography, and the Winning of Wars, 1660–1815 The signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees did not, of course, bring to an end the rivalries of the European Great Powers, or their habit of sett ●●

1815 The “Financial Revolution” The importance of finance and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The rise of the ancien régime monarchies of the eighteenth century, with their large military establishments and fleets of warships, simply increased the government’s need to nurture the economy and t ●●

1815 1815 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Like the British after 1815, the Americans in their turn found their informal influence in various lands hardening into something more formal—and more entangling; like the British,... ●●

1815 1815 Diplomatic Agreement rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Here, too, there are many parallels with the expansion of British bases and treaty relationships after 1815; but the most noticeable difference was that Britain, on the whole, was ... ●●

1815 1815 European rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Although this was an enormous force, many of its divisions existed only in skeleton form, or were essentially garrison troops.55 Moreover, the service ran the danger which had befa... ●●

1815 After the dislocations caused by the French Revolu... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After the dislocations caused by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, the leaders of Europe restored the balance of power at the Congress of ●●

1815 1804, Pitt had deflated his proposed crusade for l... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1804, Pitt had deflated his proposed crusade for liberal institutions; by 1815, Alexander was imbued with too strong a sense of victory to be thus ●●

1815 Edward Condon, whose father had been a builder of railroads in the West, who had rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Edward Condon, whose father had been a builder of railroads in the West, who had worked as a newspaper reporter in tough Oakland, found occasion at Oppenheimer’s party to satirize Los Alamos’ Panglossian mood.1815 He was an exceptional theoretician; he and Oppenheimer had boarded together at Göttingen; Condon thought they were fast friends. ●●

1815 replied to Thiers three days later: “I detest thos... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story He replied to Thiers three days later: “I detest those treaties of 1815 which nowadays people want to make the sole basis of our policy.”20 Little mor ●●

1815 He was an exceptional theoretician; he and Oppenheimer had boarded together at Göttingen; Condon tho rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story He was an exceptional theoretician; he and Oppenheimer had boarded together at Göttingen; Condon thought they were fast friends. ●●

1815 1815: Ada, Countess of Lovelace (1815–52), painted by Margaret Sarah Carpent rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Ada, Countess of Lovelace (1815–52), painted by Margaret Sarah Carpenter in 1836. Lord Byron (1788–1824), Ada’s father, in Albania ●●

1815 1815: ere were times when Lord Byron was not a romantic. He and Annabella we rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ere were times when Lord Byron was not a romantic. He and Annabella were married in January 1815. Byron initiated the marriage in his Byronic fash ●●

1815 No country in Europe qualified as even an electoral democracy at the time of the Congress of Vienna rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story No country in Europe qualified as even an electoral democracy at the time of the Congress of Vienna in 1815 that brought to an end the Napoleonic Wars. ●●

1815 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1815) Few in 1789 could have predicted that France rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1815) Few in 1789 could have predicted that France would be the seat of revolution ●●

1815 People who cared about the restructuring of Europe in the wake of rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story People who cared about the restructuring of Europe in the wake of events from 1789 to 1815 respected the rationalism of the Enlightenment less than a new expression of emotion and a search for individual fulfilment ●●

1815 94 In 1815 active Church membership had grown to around a quarter rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 94 In 1815 active Church membership had grown to around a quarter of the population; by 1914 it was approaching half - this in a country which in the same period through immigration and natural growth had seen its numbers balloon from 8 ●●

1815 War or conflict rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the 126 years between 1689 and 1815, England was at war 63 of them ●●

1815 And few had capital assets (excluding the value of slaves) of $300,000, the capi rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story And few had capital assets (excluding the value of slaves) of $300,000, the capitalization of the Boston Manufacturing Company when it began productio ●●

1815 Each of these enterprises, serving as exclusive marketing agents for several lar rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Each of these enterprises, serving as exclusive marketing agents for several large mills, sold their products through the distributing network which h ●●

1815 This firm began by importing a general line of goods from Europe and trading ext rejected ai_extracted 2 cit. no story This firm began by importing a general line of goods from Europe and trading extensively with the West Indies, but after 1815 it concentrated wholly o ●●

1815 Connecticut born, Morgan began as a ship’s grocer and chandler in 1815 and owned rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Connecticut born, Morgan began as a ship’s grocer and chandler in 1815 and owned shares of ships and packet lines after 1819 ●●

1815 Nathan Rothschild and the Waterloo bond myth 0 cit. Nathan Mayer Rothschild made his London house a major force in British government finance around the Napoleonic Wars. A popular legend claims he got early news of Waterloo and made a killing crashing the market, a story pushed hardest in antisemitic propaganda and not supported by the evidence. The real achievement was ordinary hard finance, raising loans and trading bonds, not a secret coup. economy / politics ●●

c. 1815 Pax Britannica and the primacy of the Royal Navy 0 cit. After the defeat of Napoleon, Britain emerged as the world's leading naval, financial, and industrial power, opening a century of relative peace among the great powers that historians call the Pax Britannica. British sea power secured trade routes across the globe and made London the hub of world commerce. economy / politics / war ●●●

20 March 1815 The Congress of Vienna declares perpetual neutrality 0 cit. As Europe's powers redrew the map after Napoleon, they issued a declaration recognising the permanent neutrality of Switzerland and the inviolability of its territory. Neutrality here served the powers as much as the Swiss: a stable buffer state sat between France, Austria and the German lands where no rival could gain advantage. The principle was thus written into the postwar settlement by the great powers themselves. diplomacy / politics ●●●

20 November 1815 The Treaty of Paris guarantees Swiss neutrality 0 cit. In a formal act signed at Paris, the major powers confirmed and guaranteed Switzerland's perpetual neutrality and the integrity of its borders. This turned the Vienna declaration into a binding international guarantee backed by the signatories. It is the legal foundation on which modern Swiss neutrality still rests. diplomacy / politics ●●●

1815 Royal Navy supremacy after the Napoleonic Wars 0 cit. With the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, no rival fleet could match the Royal Navy. Britain emerged from the wars with the largest navy in the world and used it to police sea lanes, protect trade, and project power globally. This maritime dominance underwrote British foreign policy for the rest of the nineteenth century. politics / war ●●●●

1815 The idea of Pax Britannica, 1815 to 1914 0 cit. The century between Waterloo and the First World War saw no general war among Europe's great powers, a period later named the Pax Britannica after the Roman peace. Britain's naval supremacy, financial weight, and diplomacy are credited with helping keep that balance. Critics and many historians argue the peace held among the great powers but rested on naval force and did not extend to the colonized world, where wars and conquests ran on without pause. diplomacy / politics ●●●●

9 July 1816 Independence of Argentina 0 cit. no story The Congress of Tucuman declares the independence of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata from Spain. politics / war ●●●●

10 April 1816 Founding of the Second Bank of the United States 1 cit. President Madison signs the charter of a second national bank to stabilize currency chaos after the War of 1812. Under Nicholas Biddle it becomes the young republic's most powerful financial institution and the focus of a bitter political fight. economy / politics ●●●●

10 April 1816 Second Bank of the United States chartered 0 cit. Congress chartered the Second Bank of the United States after the first bank's charter lapsed in 1811. It held federal deposits and helped manage the national currency. economy / politics ●●●

1816 Founding of the Zulu Kingdom 0 cit. Shaka reorganized the Zulu into a formidable military kingdom in southern Africa. His reforms reshaped the region during a period of upheaval. politics / war ●●●●

1816 The first of these was in terms of total population, althoug rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The first of these was in terms of total population, although the gap significantly narrowed between 1816 (Russia 51.2 million, United States 8.5 million) and 1860 (Russia 76 million, United States 31 ●●

1816 We must be able to overwhelm them by this means, without which I do not see a wa rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story We must be able to overwhelm them by this means, without which I do not see a way through.”1816, 1817 The slide from precision bombing attacks on industry to general attacks on cities followed less from political decisions than from inadequate technology. ●●

1816 1817 The slide from precision bombing attacks on industry to general attacks on cities followed les rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1817 The slide from precision bombing attacks on industry to general attacks on cities followed less from political decisions than from inadequate technology. ●●

1816 Resort to Arms: International and Civil Wars, 1816–1980. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Resort to Arms: International and Civil Wars, 1816–1980. ●●

1816 84 Robert Owen, one of the chief personalities in the movement, who rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 84 Robert Owen, one of the chief personalities in the movement, who from 1816 turned theory into remarkably productive practice in his New Lanark cotton mills in Scotland, detested established Churches, but he certainly did not lack religious serious ●●

1816 Legislative action rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Act of 1816, Section 20, 3 Stat ●●

1816 Then, in 1816, when Nathan Trotter took over the firm, he began to concentrate o rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Then, in 1816, when Nathan Trotter took over the firm, he began to concentrate on importing a single line of goods—iron, copper, and other metals ●●

c. 1816 Shaka builds the Zulu kingdom 0 cit. Shaka kaSenzangakhona took leadership of the small Zulu chiefdom and transformed it through military innovation, including the short stabbing spear and new regimental system, into a powerful centralized kingdom. His campaigns absorbed and displaced neighboring chiefdoms across the region. Shaka's rise is central to the wider period of upheaval known as the Mfecane. politics / war ●●●

9 July 1816 San Martin and Argentina's declaration of independence 0 cit. The United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata declared independence from Spain, a movement in which Jose de San Martin became the leading general. San Martin then led armies across the Andes to carry the fight into Chile and Peru. He and Bolivar together freed the southern and northern halves of Spanish South America. politics / war ●●

1817 to 1824 First cholera pandemic wikidata 0 cit. no story cholera pandemic in Asia and Middle East, 1817-1824 ●●●

1817 to May 1864 Caucasian War 0 cit. no story Russia spends nearly half a century subduing the mountain peoples of the Caucasus, including Imam Shamil's long resistance. The conquest ends with the mass expulsion of the Circassians. war ●●●

1817 In 1817, Joseph sold his farm in West Springfield, Massachus rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1817, Joseph sold his farm in West Springfield, Massachusetts, and moved to Hartford, Connecticut, which would become the Morgans’ ancestral home. Joseph had a refined air, a straight, delicate nos... ●●

1817 'Morphine' comes from the god Morpheus 0 cit. When a German chemist isolated the sleep-inducing drug from opium, he named it morphine after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams. The painkiller is named for a dream-god. religion / science ●●●

1817 Prussia requires law study for higher civil service ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The employment regulations of 1817 required a classical secondary education as well as university study in law for recruitment into the higher civil service. ●●

1817 Pennsylvania Charter Explosion in New Banks rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Griffin reports that Pennsylvania chartered thirty-seven new banks in 1817, part of a wildcat banking boom following the War of 1812. ●●

1817 San Martin crosses the Andes 0 cit. Jose de San Martin leads an army over the high Andes to surprise and defeat royalist forces in Chile, securing its independence. He then mounts a seaborne campaign against Peru, the stronghold of Spanish power, and declares its independence in 1821. His southern campaign complements Simon Bolivar's advance from the north. politics / war ●●●

12 February 1818 Independence of Chile 0 cit. no story Bernardo O'Higgins proclaims Chile's independence from Spain, secured by victory at the Battle of Maipu. politics / war ●●●

1818 Founding of Brown Brothers & Co. 0 cit. Sons of Baltimore linen merchant Alexander Brown open a Philadelphia house that grows into Brown Brothers & Co., financing Anglo-American trade. Its 1931 merger with Harriman interests creates Brown Brothers Harriman, the oldest large US private bank. economy ●●●

18 October 1818 Hamburg Temple and the birth of Reform Judaism 0 cit. The Hamburg Temple opens with services in German, organ music, and a revised prayer book. It becomes the flagship of the Reform movement, which reshapes Jewish practice in Europe and America. religion ●●●

c. September 1818 Ottoman-Egyptian Destruction of Diriyah 0 cit. An Egyptian army sent by the Ottoman viceroy Muhammad Ali, led by Ibrahim Pasha, captured and razed Diriyah. The campaign ended the First Saudi State and executed its leaders. politics / war ●●●●

1818 Rothschilds pioneer international government bonds 0 cit. In 1818 the Rothschilds arranged a Prussian government loan sold in London and denominated in sterling. The structure helped create the modern market for cross-border sovereign bonds. economy ●●●●

1818 its reserve quite evident as early as the first su... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story its reserve quite evident as early as the first such conference, the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. ●●

1818 France admitted at Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When Castlereagh attended the first conference at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, France was admitted to the Congress system and Great Britain made its exit ●●

1818 And within less than three years—in 1818—he managed France’s entry into the Quadruple Alliance candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story onality could have projected himself into the center of so many great and conflicting events. At Vienna, Talleyrand’s contribution was to achieve for France a peace that preserved the “ancient frontiers,” which existed when it had started its foreign ●●

1818 In 1818 Parliament voted funds for a large number of new (and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1818 Parliament voted funds for a large number of new (and remarkably joyless) urban churches, and for around forty years from the late 1780s it was also official policy to finance Anglican establishments in British colonial possessions ●●

1818 First deliberate US monetary contraction begins ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The country’s first experience with a deliberately created mone- tary contraction began in 1818 when the Bank became concerned about its own ability t ●●

c. 1818 The Mfecane upheavals reshape the interior 0 cit. Between roughly 1818 and 1840, a period of widespread warfare, forced migration, and state formation swept through southern Africa, driven by competition for land and cattle amid drought and the growth of the Zulu kingdom. Known among Zulu speakers as the Mfecane and among Sotho speakers as the Difaqane, it scattered chiefdoms and led to the founding of new kingdoms such as the Basotho under Moshoeshoe I and the Ndebele under Mzilikazi. Historians continue to debate how much of the disruption stemmed from Zulu expansion versus other factors, including earlier colonial slave raiding and trade pressures. society / war ●●●

22 February 1819 Adams-Onis Treaty 0 cit. Treaty in which Spain ceded Florida to the United States and the two powers fixed a boundary across North America to the Pacific. It defined the western limits of the Louisiana Purchase. diplomacy / politics ●●●

29 January 1819 Founding of Singapore 0 cit. Stamford Raffles established a British trading post at the tip of the Malay Peninsula. It grew into a great free port commanding the sea route between India and China. economy ●●●●

16 August 1819 The Peterloo Massacre 0 cit. Cavalry charged a large peaceful crowd calling for political reform at St Peter's Field, killing and injuring many. The event became a symbol of the demand for the vote and workers' rights. politics / society ●●●●

1819 Prussia establishes the first effective secular compulsion schooling ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto states that Prussia produced the human race's first effective secular compulsion schooling in 1819, the same year he says Mary Shelley's Frankenstein appeared in England. ●●

1819 John Griscom's 'A Year in Europe' praises Prussian schools ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto lists travelers' reports that brought Prussian schooling to American attention. The first was John Griscom's 1819 book A Year in Europe, read and admired by Thomas Jefferson and other leading Americans. ●●

1819 Kings: George I (Elector of Hanover, King of Ireland;; ); George(Elector of rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Kings: George I (Elector of Hanover, King of Ireland;; ); George(Elector of Hanover, King of Ireland;; ); George(1865; ) Queens: Victoria (Queen-Empress; 1819; ) see also Atlantic Isles; British Empire; England; Ireland; Scotland; Wales Great Moravia ●●

1819 The Panic of 1819 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This is exactly what happened in the so-called panic of 1819 ●●

16 August 1819 Peterloo Massacre pressures England toward police reform 0 cit. Local yeomanry cavalry charged into a crowd of roughly 60,000 gathered peacefully in Manchester to demand parliamentary reform, killing at least 18 people and injuring hundreds. The lack of a professional, disciplined police force capable of controlling crowds without cavalry became part of the case reformers made for a dedicated civil police. The massacre remains one of the most notorious instances of British authorities using military force against civilians. politics ●●

29 January 1819 Singapore founded as British trading post 0 cit. Stamford Raffles negotiated with local Malay rulers to establish a British trading post on the island of Singapore. Its position on the Strait of Malacca made it a key hub in British trade with China and Southeast Asia. It became one of the Straits Settlements and a major imperial naval base. diplomacy / economy ●●

7 August 1819 Battle of Boyaca secures the north 0 cit. Bolivar's victory at Boyaca broke Spanish power in New Granada and made possible the republic of Gran Colombia. It was a turning point in the northern independence campaign. The win opened the road to liberating the rest of the region. politics / war ●●

7 August 1819 Bolivar's northern campaign and Boyaca 0 cit. Simon Bolivar's victory at the Battle of Boyaca breaks Spanish power in New Granada and clears the way for the liberation of the north. Bolivar founds the union of Gran Colombia, joining present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama, as a base for further campaigns. He is celebrated across the region as the Liberator. politics / war ●●●

c. 1819 Wissenschaft des Judentums treats Kabbalah as embarrassment 0 cit. The scholars of Wissenschaft des Judentums, the critical academic study of Judaism, built a rationalist and historical image of the tradition. Figures like Heinrich Graetz portrayed Kabbalah as a foreign intrusion and a decline, pushing the mystical strand to the margins of respectable Jewish thought. religion / science ●●

26 April 1819 Odd Fellows organized in North America 0 cit. Thomas Wildey, an English immigrant, founded Washington Lodge No. 1 of the Independent Order of Odd Fellows in Baltimore, planting the English fraternal order in America. The Odd Fellows offered members ritual, fellowship, and mutual aid such as sick pay and burial funds. It became one of the largest fraternal orders of the nineteenth century. economy / society ●●

25 February 1819 Dartmouth College defines the corporation as an artificial legal being 3 cit. In Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward, the U.S. Supreme Court described the corporation as an artificial being existing only in contemplation of law. That is the real legal fiction behind corporate personhood: the law can recognize organizations as juridical persons for property, contract, liability, and litigation. It does not mean every human has a hidden corporate double. economy / politics ●●●●●

c. January 1820 General Maritime Treaty of 1820 0 cit. Britain imposed a treaty on the Arab sheikhdoms of the lower Gulf to suppress piracy and the maritime slave trade. The agreement began British involvement in what became known as the Trucial Coast. economy / politics ●●●

c. 1820 to c. 1850 Belgium industrializes first on the European continent 0 cit. Rich in coal and iron, Belgium built mechanized textile mills, ironworks, and railways before its neighbors. It became the first industrial economy outside Britain. economy / technology ●●●●

c. 1820 Salomon Rothschild founds the Vienna bank 0 cit. Salomon Mayer von Rothschild established the S M von Rothschild bank in Vienna around 1820. The Austrian house financed state loans and railways for the Habsburg monarchy. economy ●●●

c. 1820 The domestic US slave trade 0 cit. After 1808 roughly one million enslaved people were sold from the Upper South to the cotton and sugar lands of the Deep South. This forced migration, sometimes called the Second Middle Passage, tore apart countless families. economy / society ●●●●

1820 He won reelection by the biggest electoral margin victory since James Monro... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story He won reelection by the biggest electoral margin victory since James Monroe ran unopposed in 1820, capturing 98.49 percent, or 523 electoral votes, the largest number of... ●●

1820 By 1820 per capita income in the United States was roughly twice that of China; rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1820 per capita income in the United States was roughly twice that of China; by 1870, nearly five times higher; by 1913 nearly ten times; by 1950 nearly twenty-two times. ●●

1820 Antarctica is first sighted 0 cit. Russian, British, and American expeditions sight the Antarctic mainland for the first time within months of each other. The last unknown continent finally appeared out of the ice. exploration / science ●●●

1820 1820, the United States found a compromise between... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1820, the United States found a compromise between the two approaches which enabled it to have it both ways until after the Second World War. ●●

1820 Castlereagh sets out British policy in State Paper ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Castlereagh himself had set forth the British position in a state paper of May 5, 1820. ●●

1820 Information history in 1820 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ed. “Multitudes of contrivances were designed, and almost endless drawings made, for the purpose of economizing the time,” Babbage wrote ruefully. ●●

1820 was a Jewish immigrant peddler who settled in Louisville in rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Their father, Moritz Flexner, born in Bohemia in 1820, was a Jewish immigrant peddler who settled in Louisville in 1854, carrying his wares on his bac ●●

1820 According to him, the first long wave began in the 1820s and continued through the end of the ninete rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story According to him, the first long wave began in the 1820s and continued through the end of the nineteenth century, while the second short wave happened in the immediate aftermath of World War II. ●●

1820 The prime example of this is the United States, which invented clientelistic party government after rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The prime example of this is the United States, which invented clientelistic party government after the opening up of the democratic franchise in the 1820s and was thereafter saddled with a patronage-riddled bureaucracy for much of the next century. ●●