Events, Verisoph

1862 By 1862, the building had not been completed and Tweed authorized an additional $1 million toward it rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1862, the building had not been completed and Tweed authorized an additional $1 million toward its construction. ●●

1862 Carpenter, The Forging of Bureaucratic Autonomy: Reputations, Networks, and Policy Innovation in Exe rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Carpenter, The Forging of Bureaucratic Autonomy: Reputations, Networks, and Policy Innovation in Executive Agencies, 1862–1928 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), pp. ●●

1862 He said so in a pamphlet of 1862 addressed to the Archbishop rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story He said so in a pamphlet of 1862 addressed to the Archbishop of Canterbury ●●

1862 Roman Catholic Church doctrines regarding the Virgin Mary rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Blavatsky references the Roman Catholic Church's doctrine and practices regarding the Virgin Mary as they existed in 1862, and their relationship to ancient pagan goddess worship. ●●

1862 Founding or establishment rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1862, even though the law still limited bank notes to two times capital, the banks had created $73,685,000 in total money, including checkbook mone ●●

1862 Lincoln's Greenback Currency Inflation rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Griffin describes how the Lincoln administration's issuance of greenbacks caused purchasing power to fall 65% during the Civil War, with prices more than doubling while wages rose less than half. ●●

1862 Hazard Circular Reveals Banking Strategy rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Griffin cites the Hazard Circular prepared by an American agent of British financiers, revealing their strategy to use war debt as means to control money volume and prevent greenbacks from circulating. ●●

8 March 1862 Battle of Hampton Roads 0 cit. The Confederate ironclad CSS Virginia and the Union ironclad USS Monitor fought the first battle between armored steam warships, ending in a tactical draw after hours of cannon fire that neither ship's armor could penetrate. The battle demonstrated that wooden warships were now obsolete against ironclads. Navies worldwide accelerated conversion to armored, steam-powered fleets afterward. technology / war ●●

1862 Aurora Lodge founded in the Transvaal 0 cit. Aurora Lodge, working under the Dutch constitution, became the first Masonic lodge in the South African Republic (Transvaal). Its founding and later growth are documented as a marker of Pretoria's development from Voortrekker settlement into a cosmopolitan colonial town of Boers, British settlers, and Jewish traders. society ●●

1863 to 1875 Fourth cholera pandemic wikidata 0 cit. no story One of several 19th century epidemics ●●●

17 February 1863 Founding of the International Committee of the Red Cross 0 cit. Henry Dunant and four Geneva citizens create a relief committee for wounded soldiers, the seed of the worldwide Red Cross and Red Crescent movement and of the Geneva Conventions. diplomacy / society / war ●●●●

1 August 1863 Founding of Bayer 0 cit. Friedrich Bayer and Johann Weskott found a dye factory in Barmen. The company moves into pharmaceuticals and in 1899 trademarks aspirin, one of the most widely used drugs in history. economy / science ●●●

21 May 1863 Seventh-day Adventist Church organized 0 cit. Sabbatarian Adventists who emerged from the Millerite movement formally organize as the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Ellen G. White's writings become central to the denomination's identity. religion ●●●

21 April 1863 Baha'u'llah's declaration in the Garden of Ridvan 0 cit. Baha'u'llah declares to his companions that he is the messenger foretold by the Bab, founding the Baha'i Faith. The twelve days in the Garden of Ridvan are the holiest festival of the Baha'i calendar. religion ●●●●

1 January 1863 Emancipation Proclamation frees the enslaved in rebel states 0 cit. President Lincoln declared enslaved people in the Confederate states to be free, turning the Civil War into a fight against slavery. It did not free everyone at once but marked a decisive step toward abolition. politics / war ●●●

1863 Naples branch of the Rothschild bank closes 0 cit. The Naples house wound down in 1863 as Italian unification ended the states it had served. It was the first of the five branches to close. economy / politics ●●

1 January 1863 The Emancipation Proclamation 0 cit. President Lincoln declared enslaved people in the rebelling Confederate states to be free. It reframed the Civil War as a struggle over slavery, though it freed no one immediately in areas beyond Union control. politics / war ●●●●

1863 Liberation of the Russian serfs, 1863 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As late as the emancipation of the serfs in 1863, Russia remained almost untouched by industrialization and more backward than pre-steam-engine Britain and France. ●●

1863 Sir Robert Hart heads Chinese customs (1863-1906) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley notes that treaties kept China's tariffs low and under foreign control, with Sir Robert Hart heading the Chinese customs service from 1863 to 1906. ●●

1863 Western bombardments force Japan open (1863-1866) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A series of naval bombardments of Japanese ports in 1863-1866 forced Japan open and imposed a tariff agreement limiting import duties to 5 percent until 1899. ●●

1863 Ontario teacher William Young assaulted amid schooling resistance ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites documented resistance to compulsory schooling in North America. At Brantford, Ontario, in 1863 teacher William Young was reportedly beaten severely by students while parents looked on. ●●

1863 Cofounder and leader of the First National Bank, 1863–1931 (though after 19... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Cofounder and leader of the First National Bank, 1863–1931 (though after 1913, his son George Baker Jr. was more involved running the bank). Lloyd Blankfein: Chairman and CEO of... ●●

1863 (The National Banking Act was passed in 1863—with revisions in 1864 and 186... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story (The National Banking Act was passed in 1863—with revisions in 1864 and 1865—to help fund the Civil War by creating currency notes issued by the larger nationally chartered banks... ●●

1863 Rockefeller and Clark form Andrews, Clark and Co. ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1863, John D. Rockefeller and Maurice Clark each invest $2,000 for half the working capital in Andrews, Clark and Co., Rockefeller's first major step into the oil business as a refiner. ●●

1863 Atlantic and Great Western Railroad reaches Cleveland ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On November 3, 1863, a gleaming locomotive of the Atlantic and Great Western Railroad pulls into Cleveland with ceremonial fanfare, giving the city access to New York via the Erie Railroad and Pennsylvania oil fields. ●●

1863 Allegheny River oil fire burns Franklin bridge ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1863, the Allegheny River becomes so befouled with spilled petroleum that it actually catches fire and burns a bridge in Franklin, Pennsylvania, demonstrating the environmental damage of early oil production. ●●

1863 James at Imperial Court rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story James is observed at a court social function hosted by Princess Mathilde. ●●

1863 Napoleon’s conduct during the Polish revolt of 186... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Napoleon’s conduct during the Polish revolt of 1863 advanced his journey into isolation. ●●

1863 In 1863 Renan produced a Life of Jesus which utterly denied that rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1863 Renan produced a Life of Jesus which utterly denied that this Jewish teacher had any divine character ●●

1863 National Banking Act of 1863 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The National Banking Act of 1863 required banks to keep a percentage of their notes and deposits in the form of lawful money (gold coins) as a reserve ●●

1863 Congress passes the National Banking Act ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Griffin documents that on February 25, 1863, Congress passed the National Banking Act, establishing nationally-chartered banks and transforming government bonds into circulating money. ●●

c. 1863 William Tweed becomes head of Tammany Hall's General Committee 0 cit. William M. Tweed, a former alderman and fire company leader, was elected chairman of Tammany Hall's general committee, giving him control over the organization's patronage and nominations. Over the following years he built a personal network known as the Tweed Ring, which extended into the state legislature and city government. politics ●●●

c. 1863 On the up and up: sometimes claimed, never shown 0 cit. On the up and up means honest and above-board, and it occasionally gets linked to Masonic ideas of uprightness and the plumb rule. The expression is recorded in North American English from the mid-nineteenth century, and dictionaries treat its exact origin as uncertain. There is no documentary evidence tying it to Freemasonry, so the Masonic connection is speculation rather than established fact. culture / society ●●

1863 Speke and the Hamitic myth 1 cit. The explorer John Hanning Speke popularized the so-called Hamitic hypothesis, the idea that any sign of organized statecraft in central Africa must have come from a lighter-skinned, part-Caucasian people who migrated from the north. European colonizers later applied this theory to Rwanda, casting Tutsi as a superior foreign race born to rule and Hutu as native subjects. Historians today treat the Hamitic myth as a false, racist construction, but it became the official worldview of colonial administration and a seed of later violence. science / society ●●●

17 February 1863 Founding of the Red Cross in Geneva 0 cit. A committee of five Geneva citizens, including Dunant, formed the body that became the International Committee of the Red Cross. Neutral Switzerland gave the organisation a home from which it could aid victims on all sides without being seen as taking part in a war. The white flag with a red cross reversed the Swiss national colours, tying the movement to its country of origin. society / war ●●●

1 February 1864 to 31 October 1864 Second Schleswig War wikidata 0 cit. no story second military conflict as a result of the Schleswig-Holstein Question ●●●●

22 August 1864 First Geneva Convention 0 cit. Convention for the amelioration of the condition of wounded soldiers in the field, inspired by Henry Dunant and the new Red Cross. It founded modern international humanitarian law. diplomacy / society / war ●●●●

28 September 1864 Founding of the First International 0 cit. Workers and radicals meeting at St Martin's Hall in London found the International Workingmen's Association, with Karl Marx drafting its founding documents. It was the first attempt to unite the world's labor movements. diplomacy / politics / society ●●●

November 1864 to 1 March 1870 Paraguayan War 0 cit. no story Paraguay fights Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay in South America's deadliest war. Paraguay loses much of its territory and a majority of its male population. war ●●●●

August 1864 to February 1865 Uruguayan War 0 cit. no story Brazil intervenes in Uruguay's civil strife to install the Colorado party in power. The war's entanglements help trigger the far larger Paraguayan War. politics / war ●●

4 May 1864 Founding of Société Générale 0 cit. Napoleon III authorizes Societe Generale to promote the development of commerce and industry in France. It becomes one of France's three great banks and a major international lender. economy ●●●

1864 Garibaldi and Italian Freemasonry 0 cit. Giuseppe Garibaldi, hero of Italian unification, served as a leading figure of the Grand Orient of Italy and was named its Grand Master in 1864. Italian Freemasonry was closely tied to the liberal nationalist cause. politics / religion / society ●●

22 April 1864 In God We Trust first appears on coins 0 cit. Congress authorized the motto In God We Trust on a new two-cent coin during the Civil War. The phrase gradually spread to other coins and later to paper money. culture / religion ●●

c. 1864 End of the Caucasian War 0 cit. After decades of fighting, Russia completed its conquest of the North Caucasus, defeating mountain resistance led earlier by figures such as Imam Shamil. The campaign was followed by the mass expulsion of many Circassians. politics / society / war ●●●

1864 Spencer coins "survival of the fittest" 0 cit. Herbert Spencer applied a distorted reading of evolution to society, coining "survival of the fittest." Social Darwinism was used to justify inequality, empire, and neglect of the poor as natural law. science / society ●●

8 December 1864 Syllabus of Errors 0 cit. Pope Pius IX issued a list condemning ideas such as liberalism, separation of church and state, and religious freedom. It set the Church against much of modern liberal politics. politics / religion ●●●

1864 Massachusetts reform school gives away children of retrieving parents ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto quotes an 1864 Massachusetts state document (Public Document 20) in which officials declined to return reform-school children to their own parents, placing them instead with farmers and mechanics under the state's parens patriae power. ●●

1864 Junius Morgan takes control of George Peabody and Company ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Although Peabody was nominal head until 1864, Junius Morgan assumed control of George Peabody and Company in 1859. In increasingly poor health, Peabody took his first European vacation in twenty-one y... ●●

1864 US National Bank Act passed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The National Bank Act significantly reduced barriers to setting up privately owned banks in the United States. ●●

1864 Rockefeller purchases diamond engagement ring rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As an unusual splurge, John D. Rockefeller spends a shocking $118 on a diamond engagement ring for Laura Spelman, signaling to her family that he is a rising young businessman of substance. ●●

1864 Rockefeller honeymooning at Niagara Falls and Canada rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After working on his wedding morning, Rockefeller takes a precisely planned one-month honeymoon from September 8 to October 8, 1864. The itinerary includes Niagara Falls, Montreal, Mount Washington, and Oread Collegiate Institute. ●●

1864 Peak Kerosene Prices During Civil War rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Crude oil prices peaked at $12 per barrel in 1864, driven by wartime demand. Soon after the war ended, prices collapsed to $2.40 a barrel. ●●

1864 Alphonse's Doubts on Italian Kingdom rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Alphonse expresses concern about excessive Italian stock holdings. ●●

1864 onflict: the war of Piedmont and France against Au... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story onflict: the war of Piedmont and France against Austria of 1859, the war over Schleswig-Holstein of 1864, the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, and the Fra ●●

1864 With the center of gravity of European policy movi... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story With the center of gravity of European policy moving toward Germany, France found itself alone. An ominous event occurred in 1864. ●●

1864 Government Printing Office, 1864), Document No rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story nvoys”: “The Emperor of China,” Chinese Recorder 29, no. 10 (1898): 471–73. “Having, with reverence, received”: Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs Accompanying the Annual Message of the President to the First Session of the Thirty-eighth Congress (Wa ●●

1864 Moreover, the National Banking Act of 1864 and laws in many states forbade the b... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Moreover, the National Banking Act of 1864 and laws in many states forbade the banks within their jurisdictions to have branches ●●

1864 Lincoln's Lincoln's Fears of Money Power rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Griffin quotes Lincoln expressing in a letter that he believes the money power preys on the nation, is more despotic than monarchy, and will lead to the republic's destruction. ●●

1864 Societe Generale founded under Napoleon III ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The great Belgian-linked banking house Société Générale, which Nkrumah traces through decades of African mining and financial ties, was founded under Napoleon the Third. ●●

22 August 1864 First Geneva Convention Signed 0 cit. Twelve European states signed the first Geneva Convention, agreeing to protect wounded soldiers and medical personnel on the battlefield regardless of which side they fought for. The treaty, driven by Henry Dunant's campaigning after the Battle of Solferino, was the first modern international agreement to codify limits on the conduct of war. It began the treaty-based body of international humanitarian law that later Geneva and Hague conventions expanded. diplomacy / war ●●●

c. January 1864 Long Walk of the Navajo 0 cit. Following a scorched-earth campaign led by Kit Carson that destroyed Navajo (Diné) crops, orchards, and livestock, the U.S. Army forced roughly 8,000 Navajo people to walk over 300 miles to the Bosque Redondo reservation at Fort Sumner, New Mexico. Hundreds died during the marches from cold, starvation, and violence. Conditions at Bosque Redondo were so severe that the Navajo were allowed to return to a portion of their homeland under an 1868 treaty. war ●●

29 November 1864 Sand Creek Massacre 0 cit. Colonel John Chivington led roughly 675 Colorado militia in an attack on a peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment flying an American flag and a white flag of truce under Chief Black Kettle. A subsequent U.S. Army investigation and congressional inquiry condemned the attack as a massacre; estimates of the dead, mostly women, children, and the elderly, range from about 70 to over 200 depending on the source, with the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site citing roughly 230. Three congressional and military investigations followed, and Chivington was never prosecuted. war ●●●

1 May 1865 Treaty of the Triple Alliance 0 cit. Secret alliance of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay against Paraguay in the War of the Triple Alliance, including terms for territorial gains. Its leak caused outrage across South America. diplomacy / politics / war ●●

17 May 1865 International Telegraph Convention 0 cit. Convention among twenty states standardizing telegraph networks and tariffs and founding the International Telegraph Union, the oldest international organization still operating. It began formal international cooperation on technology. diplomacy / politics / technology ●●●

17 May 1865 Founding of the International Telegraph Union 0 cit. Twenty European states sign the International Telegraph Convention in Paris, founding the world's first modern international organization to standardize telegraph networks. It became the International Telecommunication Union in 1932. diplomacy / technology ●●●

3 March 1865 Founding of HSBC 0 cit. The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation opens in Hong Kong to finance trade between Asia, Europe, and North America. It becomes one of the world's largest banks and the dominant financial institution of East Asian trade. economy ●●●●

6 April 1865 Founding of BASF 0 cit. The Badische Anilin- und Sodafabrik is founded to make synthetic dyes on the Rhine. It later industrializes the Haber-Bosch process for synthetic ammonia and becomes the world's largest chemical company. economy / science ●●●

12 May 1865 Founding of Nokia 0 cit. Mining engineer Fredrik Idestam wins a permit for a wood pulp mill in Tampere, Finland. The paper company later diversifies and, more than a century on, becomes the world's largest mobile phone maker. economy / technology ●●●

5 July 1865 Founding of the Secret Service 0 cit. The Treasury creates the Secret Service to suppress rampant counterfeiting, at a time when perhaps a third of circulating currency was fake. After President McKinley's assassination in 1901 it takes on full-time protection of the president. economy / politics ●●●

6 December 1865 Ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment 0 cit. The amendment abolishing slavery throughout the United States is ratified months after the Civil War ends. It is the first of the three Reconstruction amendments that rewrite the constitutional order. politics / society ●●●●●

c. 1865 to c. 1885 Russian Conquest of Central Asia 0 cit. Russia conquered or made protectorates of Tashkent, Samarkand, Khiva, and Bukhara, absorbing much of Central Asia. The advance brought Russia into rivalry with Britain in the contest known as the Great Game. politics / war ●●●

6 December 1865 Thirteenth Amendment abolishes slavery 0 cit. The Thirteenth Amendment ended slavery throughout the United States. It was the first of three Reconstruction amendments meant to secure freedom and rights for formerly enslaved people. politics / society ●●●

1865 to 1877 Reconstruction reshapes the postwar South 0 cit. After the Civil War, Black Americans gained citizenship, voted, and held office during Reconstruction. White backlash and the withdrawal of federal troops in 1877 ended the era and ushered in decades of segregation. politics / society ●●●

1865 The Siemens-Martin open-hearth process is developed 0 cit. The open-hearth furnace, drawing on the Siemens regenerative design and the Martin brothers' work, made large batches of steel from scrap and pig iron. It gave finer control than the Bessemer converter and came to dominate steelmaking. economy / technology ●●●●

c. December 1865 Founding of the Ku Klux Klan 0 cit. The Ku Klux Klan was founded by former Confederates as a secret order that used terror and violence against freed Black Americans and their allies. It functioned as a racist terrorist organization during Reconstruction. politics / society ●●●●

6 December 1865 The US Thirteenth Amendment 0 cit. The Thirteenth Amendment was ratified, abolishing slavery throughout the United States. It freed roughly four million people, though it left an exception for punishment of crime. politics / society ●●●●●

1865 J.P. Morgan marries Frances Tracy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In May 1865, he married Frances Louisa Tracy—Fanny, as she was known—daughter of a successful lawyer, Charles Tracy, who later performed legal work for Pierpont. She was tall and pretty, with a rosebu... ●●

1865 Pithole Creek gusher creates Pennsylvania boomtown ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In January 1865, a tremendous gusher spouts up at Pithole Creek in Pennsylvania, transforming a settlement of four log cabins into a boomtown of 12,000 people with 50 hotels and crystal-chandelier theater within months. ●●

1865 Rockefeller buys out Clark brothers at auction ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On February 1, 1865, Rockefeller engineers the dissolution of his partnership with the Clark brothers by arranging an auction of the refining business. He secures $72,500 loan from sympathetic bankers and wins the refinery. ●●

1865 Robert E. Lee surrenders at Appomattox Courthouse ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On April 9, 1865, General Robert E. Lee surrenders to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia, effectively ending the American Civil War. ●●

1865 Torpedo Wells Technology Increases Production rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Producers began using gunpowder explosives inside wells in 1865 to increase extraction. This innovation swelled production and drove prices downward. ●●

1865 As the South’s economy, morale, and front-line forces waned— candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As the South’s economy, morale, and front-line forces waned—by the beginning of 1865 its “present for duty” troop total was down to 155,000 men—surrender was the only realistic choice left. ●●

1865 Clausius coins the term entropy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ame given to one of the quantitative elements which determine the thermodynamic condition of a portion of matter. Rudolf Clausius coined the word in 1865, in the course of creating a science of thermo ●●

1865 Hudson Taylor founds the China Inland Mission ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Breaking with the floundering Christian missionary society which had brought him to China, in 1865 he set up his own, the China Inland Mission, which would be based in China and seek no support but that of God himself ●●

1865 Kings: George I (Elector of Hanover, King of Ireland;; ); George(Elector of rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Kings: George I (Elector of Hanover, King of Ireland;; ); George(Elector of Hanover, King of Ireland;; ); George(1865; ) Queens: Victoria (Queen-Empress; 1819; ) see also Atlantic Isles; British Empire; England; Ireland; Scotland; Wales Great Moravia ●●

1865 Blavatsky's writings on Astronomy and Nebular Theory rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Blavatsky states that she examined and counted thirty-nine contradictory scientific hypotheses regarding the rotation of heavenly bodies in a series of works on Astronomy and the Nebular Theory written between 1865 and 1866. ●●

1865 Remington Brothers Agricultural Works founded ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1865 they set up the Remington Brothers Agricultural Works to make mowing machines and cultivators ●●

1865 They were the Albany Iron Works of Erastus Corning and John Winslow in 1865, the... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story They were the Albany Iron Works of Erastus Corning and John Winslow in 1865, the rail-making subsidiary of the Pennsylvania Railroad, the Pennsylvania Steel Company, in 1866, followed by Cleveland Rolling Mill Company (A ●●

c. November 1865 Black Codes enacted across the South 0 cit. Beginning right after the Civil War, Southern state legislatures passed Black Codes restricting the freedom of formerly enslaved people. The laws limited where Black people could work, live, and travel, and used vagrancy statutes to force many into labor arrangements resembling slavery. Congress and the military governments of Reconstruction later overturned many of these laws, but similar restrictions returned once Reconstruction ended. politics / society ●●

1865 Jamieson publishes 'Masonry in China' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Freemasons Magazine and Masonic Mirror published Bro. Alexander Jamieson's article 'Masonry in China' on 15 April 1865. Jamieson, a former U.S. consular interpreter in China, surveyed Chinese secret societies under a Masonic-sounding heading while insisting they were not genuine Freemasonry. ●●

1865 Jamieson's Account of Triad Lodges Fielding Spies and Executioners rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Writing in 1865, Jamieson describes each Triad lodge chief as commanding a body of enforcers who act as spies and executioners, holding delegated authority to inflict the death penalty on their own judgment against brethren found guilty of treachery to the order. ●●

c. 1865 Pennsylvania authorizes private Coal and Iron Police 0 cit. Pennsylvania law allowed railroad and coal companies to commission their own private police forces, known as the Coal and Iron Police, with full state arrest powers paid for and controlled by the companies themselves. Labor organizers and their allies attacked the arrangement for decades as company-funded law enforcement used to break strikes and intimidate union organizers, and the force was eventually abolished by the state legislature in 1935. economy / politics ●●

5 July 1865 US Secret Service founded to fight counterfeiting 0 cit. The Secret Service was created within the Treasury Department to combat the widespread counterfeiting of US currency that followed the Civil War, when as much as a third of circulating money was estimated to be fake. Protecting the president was not yet part of its mission; that role developed gradually over the following decades. economy / politics ●●

6 December 1865 The Thirteenth Amendment abolishes slavery in the United States 0 cit. The Thirteenth Amendment ended slavery throughout the United States, completing what the Emancipation Proclamation began. It freed around four million people. An exception for punishment of a crime later became the basis for debate over forced prison labor. politics / society ●●●

17 December 1865 Leopold II becomes King of the Belgians 0 cit. Leopold II took the throne of a small, young, and neutral kingdom barely three decades old. He was openly frustrated that Belgium lacked the reach and prestige of Britain, France, or the Netherlands. From early in his reign he argued that a colony was the key to national greatness, a conviction that shaped the next forty years of his life. politics ●●

1865 Maxwell's equations unify electricity, magnetism, and light 0 cit. James Clerk Maxwell showed that electricity and magnetism are two sides of one field and that light itself is an electromagnetic wave. His equations predicted radio waves before anyone had detected them. It was one of the great unifications in physics and set the stage for relativity. science ●●●

14 June 1866 to 26 July 1866 Austro-Prussian War wikidata 0 cit. 1866 military conflict between the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire ●●●●

10 May 1866 Collapse of Overend, Gurney and Company 0 cit. London's greatest discount house suspends payments with debts of about 11 million pounds, triggering a panic remembered as Black Friday. The crisis shapes the doctrine, later articulated by Walter Bagehot, that the Bank of England must act as lender of last resort. economy ●●●●

1866 Founding of Nestle 0 cit. The Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company opens in 1866, and Henri Nestle launches his infant food in Vevey the next year. The merged company becomes the world's largest food and drink business. economy ●●●

July 1866 First lasting transatlantic telegraph cable 0 cit. A durable transatlantic telegraph cable entered service in July 1866 after earlier attempts failed, linking North America and Europe by wire. Messages that had taken days by ship now crossed the ocean in minutes. exploration / technology ●●●