Events, Verisoph

2 August 1858 Crown rule established in India 0 cit. The Government of India Act transferred rule of India from the East India Company directly to the British Crown following the 1857 rebellion. The change created the British Raj, a system of direct colonial administration over the Indian subcontinent that lasted until 1947. Queen Victoria was later proclaimed Empress of India in 1876. politics ●●●

2 August 1858 British Crown assumes direct rule of India 0 cit. The Government of India Act transferred rule of India from the East India Company to the British Crown, ending the Company's century of quasi-sovereign rule following the 1857 rebellion. India became the centerpiece of the British Empire, later styled the British Raj under a viceroy. British administration reorganized taxation, law, and infrastructure while maintaining racial hierarchy and extraction of resources for the metropole. politics ●●●

c. 1858 Freemasons' Hall, Edinburgh, Built 0 cit. The Grand Lodge of Scotland opened a Freemasons' Hall on George Street in Edinburgh, designed by the architect and Freemason David Bryce. It served as the headquarters of Scottish Freemasonry until a larger hall replaced it on the same site in 1911-12. The building reflected the same 19th-century pattern seen in London, Dublin, and New York, in which national Grand Lodges built substantial civic-style headquarters. Its openly displayed square and compasses were ordinary Masonic branding, not hidden symbolism. culture / society ●

2 August 1858 The Crown takes over India from the Company 0 cit. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 exposed the dangers of company rule, the Government of India Act transferred the East India Company's territories, army, and administration to the British Crown. The company had governed much of the subcontinent for a century, complete with its own soldiers and courts. Its dissolution marked the end of the greatest experiment in a private company acting as a sovereign state. politics / war ●●●

2 August 1858 Crown takes over rule of India from the East India Company 0 cit. After the 1857 rebellion, the Government of India Act abolished Company rule and transferred its Indian territories, armies, and revenues directly to the British Crown. The episode marked the outer limit of governing a subcontinent as a private company. It is often read as the moment a state formally reclaimed what a corporation had been running. politics / war ●●●

1858 Fingerprinting is born as a tool of colonial control 0 cit. Fingerprinting entered official use not as forensics but as a technology of colonial control. William Herschel, a British administrator in Bengal, began taking handprints and fingerprints from 1858 to bind Indians to contracts and pensions and to tell colonial subjects apart. Edward Henry later systematized the method in India before carrying the Henry Classification to Scotland Yard. The same logic reached Kenya in the Native Registration Ordinance, whose kipande fingerprinted every African man for labour control. politics / society / technology ●●

1858 British Crown assumes sovereignty over India ai_extracted 1 cit. After crushing the 1857 uprising, the British ended East India Company rule and vested sovereignty of India in the monarch through the Government of India Act of 2 August 1858. Queen Victoria's proclamation promised to respect Indian princes' rights and customs, setting the stage for a new ritual order of empire. ●●

23 October 1859 Battle of Cepeda wikidata 0 cit. no story battle 1859 ●●

24 November 1859 Publication of On the Origin of Species 0 cit. Charles Darwin publishes his theory of evolution by natural selection. The book transforms biology and permanently changes how humanity understands its own place in nature. science ●●●●

1859 Publication of On Liberty 0 cit. John Stuart Mill publishes On Liberty, arguing that society may restrain the individual only to prevent harm to others. The essay becomes a core statement of liberal political philosophy. culture / politics ●●●

c. 1859 Phineas Quimby and mental healing 0 cit. Clockmaker turned healer Phineas Quimby taught that illness comes from mistaken beliefs and can be cured by correcting the mind. His mental-healing ideas are the direct root of the New Thought movement and influenced Mary Baker Eddy, who was once his patient. religion / science ●●●

1859 Mill's On Liberty and the marketplace of ideas 0 cit. John Stuart Mill publishes On Liberty, arguing that even false or hated opinions must be free because truth is tested against them, and that the only ground for restraint is direct harm to others. The classic modern case for free speech. culture / politics ●●●●

1859 Darwin's Origin of Species published (1859) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species was published in 1859, proposing evolution of life over long time spans. Wood traces Darwinism into eugenics and later transhumanist thought. ●●

1859 Horace Mann's Antioch College commencement address ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto uses Horace Mann as his model of a schooling 'true believer.' At the 1859 Antioch College commencement Mann urged graduates to be ashamed to die until they had won some victory for humanity. ●●

1859 First important American oil exploitation at Seneca Lake ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that the first important American exploitation of oil occurred at Seneca Lake, New York, in 1859, near the ancestral home of the Rockefeller family. ●●

1859 Darwin's books reshape thinking about children and society ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto argues that Darwin's Origin of Species (1859) and Descent of Man (1871) undercut the blank-slate view of children and, in his reading, licensed the upper classes to justify forced schooling as a breeding experiment. ●●

1859 Lincoln's 1859 Wisconsin speech on mudsill theory ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites Abraham Lincoln's September 1859 speech to the Wisconsin Agricultural Society, in which Lincoln argued the goal of government should be independent livelihoods and rejected 'mudsill theory.' Gatto uses it as an anti-mudsill vision for schooling. ●●

1859 Company's Indian possessions pass to the British Crown ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At Allahabad Fort, where Clive had signed the Diwani, Lord Canning announced that the Company's Indian possessions would be nationalised. Queen Victoria would henceforth rule India in place of the directors. ●●

1859 In the Caucasus where Russians had been hard candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the Caucasus where Russians had been hard put to subdue mountain peoples, Shamil, an imam from Dagestan and Chechnya, began a long campaign against... ●●

1859 George W. Gardner joins Clark and Rockefeller ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On April 1, 1859, George W. Gardner, an elite Cleveland businessman, joins Clark and Rockefeller as partner. The firm is renamed Clark, Gardner and Company, and Rockefeller's name is dropped from the title. ●●

1859 Peace of Villafranca ends Austro-Sardinian War ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On July 12 Napoleon and Franz Joseph reach compromise peace. ●●

1859 Its fleet was expanded so that at times (e rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Its fleet was expanded so that at times (e.g., 1859) it caused alarm on the other side of the English Channel. Militarily and diplomatically, it seemed to be the decisive third force in any solution o ●●

1859 Yet however important the battles of Magenta and Solferino w rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Militarily and diplomatically, it seemed to be the decisive third force in any solution of either the German or the Italian question—as was amply shown in 1859, when France swiftly intervened on Piedm ●●

1859 1859 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story What was also important was that since a coalition war was much more likely than in, say, 1859 or 1870, the prospects that the conflict would be prolonged were also that much great... ●●

1859 mean War produced nearly two decades of conflict: ... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story mean War produced nearly two decades of conflict: the war of Piedmont and France against Austria of 1859, the war over Schleswig-Holstein of 1864, the ●●

1859 nance.”8 His penchant for revolutionary projects c... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story nance.”8 His penchant for revolutionary projects caused him to go to war with Austria over Italy in 1859. ●●

1859 something outside of all possibility we would soon... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story as something outside of all possibility we would soon hear more sensible things from there….41 In 1859, during Austria’s war with France and Piedmont, ●●

1859 Event of 1859 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 11. “candidly confess[ed]: Jefferson to Monroe, October 24, 1823, as excerpted in “Continental Policy of the United States: The Acquisition of Cuba,” Uni ●●

1859 Information history in 1859 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Philological Society. Proposal for a Publication of a New English Dictionary by the Philological Society. ●●

1859 Event of 1859 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story It was Malthus who inspired Charles Darwin to argue in 1859 that the struggle for existence could give rise to new, better-adapted species ●●

1859 77 The Great American Tea Company, founded in 1859 by George F rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 77 The Great American Tea Company, founded in 1859 by George F ●●

1859 By 1859 Singer had opened fourteen branches, each with a female demonstrator, a... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1859 Singer had opened fourteen branches, each with a female demonstrator, a mechanic to repair and service, and a salesman or canvasser to sell the machine, as well as a manager who supervised the others and handled collections and credits ●●

24 November 1859 Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species 0 cit. Darwin argued that species change over time through natural selection, offering a natural mechanism for the diversity of life. He rushed the book into print after Alfred Russel Wallace independently reached the same idea, a shared credit often forgotten. It reshaped biology and set off a long argument with religion that continues in places today. religion / science ●●●

27 August 1859 Drake drills the first commercial oil well 0 cit. Edwin Drake strikes oil at 69 feet using a steam engine and driven pipe, proving that petroleum could be pumped from the ground on purpose. The well set off a drilling rush in western Pennsylvania and marked the birth of the modern oil industry. economy / technology ●●●

24 June 1859 Henri Dunant witnesses the Battle of Solferino 1 cit. The Geneva businessman Henri Dunant came upon the aftermath of a battle that left tens of thousands of soldiers dead and wounded with almost no medical care. He organised local villagers to treat men from both sides, then wrote an account, A Memory of Solferino, calling for trained volunteer relief societies and rules to protect the wounded. The book set in motion the founding of the Red Cross. society / war ●●●

23 January 1860 Cobden-Chevalier Treaty 0 cit. Free trade treaty between Britain and France cutting tariffs and pioneering the most-favored-nation clause. It triggered a wave of trade liberalization across Europe. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●●

24 October 1860 Convention of Peking 0 cit. Settlement imposed on China after the Second Opium War, ceding Kowloon to Britain, opening Tianjin, and confirming large Russian gains in the Amur region. It deepened the unequal treaty system. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

c. 1860 English Law and Language Across the Empire 0 cit. British rule spread the English language, common law, and administrative institutions across every inhabited continent. These systems long outlasted the empire itself. culture / society ●●●

July 1860 The Clotilda, the last US slave ship 0 cit. In 1860, decades after the import ban, the schooner Clotilda smuggled about 110 captives from West Africa to Alabama. The survivors later founded Africatown, and the ship's wreck was identified in 2019. society ●●●

c. 1860 King Cotton and the American South 0 cit. By 1860 raw cotton grown by enslaved workers was the largest US export and fed textile mills in Britain and the North. The wealth of the South and much of the wider economy rested on this crop. economy / society ●●●●

1860 John D. Rockefeller casts first presidential vote for Abraham Lincoln rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1860, eighteen-year-old John D. Rockefeller casts his first presidential vote for Abraham Lincoln, reflecting his strong antislavery views and alignment with Cleveland's abolitionist community. ●●

1860 The first of these was in terms of total population, althoug rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The first of these was in terms of total population, although the gap significantly narrowed between 1816 (Russia 51.2 million, United States 8.5 million) and 1860 (Russia 76 million, United States 31 ●●

1860 While its share of world manufacturing output in 1860 was we rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story While its share of world manufacturing output in 1860 was well behind that of Great Britain, it had already surged past Germany and Russia and was on the point of overtaking France. The United States, ●●

1860 The agitation to preserve an “open door” in China and the ma rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The agitation to preserve an “open door” in China and the massive interest shown in making the United States the dominant economic force in Latin America were only two of the manifestations of this co ●●

1860 considered Prussia the most genuinely national Ger... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story He considered Prussia the most genuinely national German state, writing in 1860 that: Prussia personifies the German nationality, religious reform, co ●●

1860 Closing them off eases the adversary’s calculation... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Closing them off eases the adversary’s calculations, and constricts those of the practitioners of Realpolitik. The break between Gerlach and Bismarck ●●

1860 Information history in 1860 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story potato with it before his eyes, he will declare it useless, because it will not slice a pineapple. ”♦ They no longer saw the point. ●●

1860 In the land which became Belgium, for instance, the proportion of women rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the land which became Belgium, for instance, the proportion of women religious to men reversed from 1780 to 1860, from 40:60 to 60:40, and at the end of this process, in a development to horrify any bishop from the Council of Trent, only 10 per ce ●●

1860 War or conflict rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The relative unimportance of slavery as a cause for war was made clear by Lincoln himself during his campaign for the Presidency in 1860, and he repea ●●

1860 Bessemer steel process introduced in the United States ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In such integrated rail mills the Bessemer steel process—the first to produce that metal on a massive scale—was introduced into the United States in t ●●

1860 And they established when and where to buy, lease, or build the small feeder lin rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story And they established when and where to buy, lease, or build the small feeder lines in the 1860s and 1870s, and where and when to build the giant inter ●●

1860 The stores founded in the 1860s and 1870s account for almost half of the leading rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The stores founded in the 1860s and 1870s account for almost half of the leading department stores in New York a century later ●●

1860 French astronomy debates vacuum theory rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story French astronomers, notably Le Couturier, combated what they called the disastrous results of Newton's theory of vacuum, arguing it was impossible to maintain that celestial bodies move through absolute void. ●●

1860 By 1860 they already produced three-fourths of the industry’s output, with Wheel... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1860 they already produced three-fourths of the industry’s output, with Wheeler & Wilson manufacturing 85,000 machines in that year and the other two 55,000 apiece ●●

1860 Other western connections whose securities the Pennsylvania purchased included t... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Other western connections whose securities the Pennsylvania purchased included the Maysville & Big Sandy and the Springfield, Mount Vernon & Pittsburgh; see Henry Varnum Poor, History of the Railroads and Canals of the United States (New York, 1860), pp ●●

1860 Macmillan publication on natural history defense rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Macmillan published defense of naturalists' observations against charges of fabrication, addressing the tendency to dismiss novel discoveries. ●●

29 December 1860 HMS Warrior launched 0 cit. The Royal Navy launched HMS Warrior, Britain's response to France's Gloire, the world's first ocean-going ironclad. Warrior combined an iron hull and armor with steam propulsion and sail, instantly making existing wooden battle fleets obsolete. Its launch opened an arms race in armored warship design among the naval powers. technology / war ●●

c. 1860 Leopold's long search for a colony 0 cit. As crown prince and then king, Leopold spent years scouting possible colonies, weighing schemes in places from the Philippines and Formosa to Argentina, Fiji, and parts of Africa. He famously called the sea-borne empires of others a source of wealth and standing that Belgium was missing. Historians treat this restless, decades-long hunt as the documented root of the Congo project, driven by ambition for personal and national stature rather than by any settled plan. economy / politics ●●

c. 1860 Mwami Rwabugiri centralizes the kingdom 0 cit. King Kigeli IV Rwabugiri ran a long campaign of conquest and administrative reform that greatly strengthened the central court. His reign tightened the reach of the monarchy and sharpened distinctions between rulers and ruled. These pre-colonial hierarchies gave later European administrators a structure they would harden into racial rule. politics / war ●

c. 1860 The nineteenth century makes calculus rigorous 0 cit. Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Bernhard Riemann, and Karl Weierstrass replaced the loose talk of infinitely small quantities with careful definitions of limits and continuity. This drive for rigor put the calculus, two centuries old, on a solid logical footing at last. It reflected a wider demand that mathematics prove its claims from precise foundations rather than intuition. science ●●●

1860 The Alliance Israelite Universelle modernizes and Frenchifies 0 cit. The Alliance Israelite Universelle, founded in Paris, built a network of French-language schools across the Ottoman and North African Sephardic world. The schools lifted a poor and traditional population into the modern age and European languages. They also pulled young Sephardim toward French and away from Ladino, beginning the slow decline of the old tongue. culture / politics / society ●●

1860 Max Havelaar exposes colonial abuse 0 cit. The former colonial official Eduard Douwes Dekker, writing as Multatuli, publishes Max Havelaar, a novel attacking the exploitation of Javanese peasants under Dutch rule. It shocks readers at home and becomes a landmark in the debate over the morality of the colonial system. culture / politics / society ●●●

c. 1860 Kerosene lamps replace whale oil 0 cit. Refiners learned to distill cheap kerosene from crude oil for lamp fuel, undercutting expensive whale oil almost overnight. Lighting, not fuel for engines, was the first mass market that made oil valuable and drove the early industry. economy / society / technology ●●

c. 1860 The orkoiyot and Kimnyole 4 cit. In the nineteenth century the Nandi adopted the office of orkoiyot, a supreme ritual prophet drawn from the Talai clan, an institution borrowed and reshaped from the Maasai laibon. The orkoiyot blessed raids, foretold events, and gave the scattered Nandi clans a rare central figure. The prophet Kimnyole arap Turukat held this power until, tradition says, the Nandi turned on and killed him after prophecies they blamed for disaster. politics / religion ●●

c. 1860 Takaungu and the Mazrui slaveholders 0 cit. The Mazrui, an Omani family that had once governed Mombasa before the Busaidi pushed them out, held on as landholders north of the port. Their strongholds at Takaungu and Gazi ran grain and coconut plantations worked by enslaved people. The Mazrui and the Busaidi elite were rivals in politics but partners in the same slaveholding economy. economy / politics ●●

c. 1860 Women's collective oaths and sanctions 0 cit. Women held collective power to discipline through oaths and shaming. On the coast, Giriama and Mijikenda women used the kifudu, a funeral rite that could be turned into a binding women's oath. Among the Kikuyu and Gusii, women could act together to punish a man who abused a woman, including guturama, a public stripping curse that was the ultimate sanction. These were recognised customary powers, not mere protest. religion / society ●●●

17 March 1861 Unification of Italy 0 cit. The Kingdom of Italy is proclaimed under Victor Emmanuel II, uniting most of the peninsula after the Risorgimento. politics / war ●●●●

December 1861 to June 1867 French Intervention in Mexico 0 cit. no story Napoleon III installs Maximilian of Austria as emperor of Mexico, but republican forces under Benito Juarez fight on. The French withdraw and Maximilian is executed in 1867. politics / war ●●●

12 April 1861 to 9 April 1865 American Civil War 0 cit. no story Eleven slaveholding states secede and fight the Union in America's deadliest war, killing over 600,000 soldiers. Union victory preserves the nation and ends slavery. politics / society / war ●●●●●

1861 Germ theory of disease 0 cit. Louis Pasteur showed that microbes cause disease and spoilage rather than arising on their own. Germ theory led to sterilization, safe food and modern public health. science ●●●●

3 March 1861 Emancipation of the Serfs 0 cit. Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom, freeing tens of millions of peasants from bondage to their landlords. The reform was limited by redemption payments and land arrangements that left many peasants poor and discontented. economy / politics / society ●●●●

1861 Self-Strengthening Movement 0 cit. Reformist officials tried to modernize the military and industry by adopting Western technology while keeping Confucian institutions. The effort produced arsenals and shipyards but did not save the dynasty. economy / technology ●●●

3 March 1861 Russia abolishes serfdom 0 cit. Tsar Alexander II emancipated more than 20 million serfs bound to the land and their lords. Serfdom was not chattel slavery, but the comparison shows how widespread bonded labour remained in the 1800s. politics / society ●●●

1861 Henry Maine publishes Ancient Law, 1861 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto notes that Sir Henry Maine's 1861 book Ancient Law made his reputation and helped justify separating children from their cultures through adoption and schooling. ●●

1861 Amid a mad rush of Wall Street profiteering, Pierpont financ candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Amid a mad rush of Wall Street profiteering, Pierpont financed a deal in 1861 that, if not unscrupulous, showed a decided lack of judgment. ●●

1861 Rockefeller hires military substitute as Civil War begins rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Like many wealthy young men, John D. Rockefeller hires a military substitute for $300 to serve in place of him during the Civil War, exempting himself from military service. ●●

1861 Mill publishes Thoughts on Parliamentary Government ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In Thoughts on Parliamentary Government, published in 1861 before the Second Reform Act, Mill made several arguments against a universal and equal franchise. ●●

1861 Even those who were not High Churchpeople approved of the Church gradually rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Even those who were not High Churchpeople approved of the Church gradually gaining a forum for its own debate, first in the revival of the Convocations of Canterbury and York in 1852 and 1861, and then in the creation of a series of Church assemblies ●●

1861 The suddenness of the change in Southern society, the freeing of four rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The suddenness of the change in Southern society, the freeing of four million human beings, was a deep trauma to add to the sheer destructiveness and death of the war itself: the end of an institution which in 1861 had seemed to be flourishing and ev ●●

1861 War or conflict rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Even after the outbreak of war in 1861, Lincoln confirmed his previous stand ●●

1861 Transcontinental telegraph reaches the Pacific ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Because the telegraph was easier and cheaper to build than the railroad, it reached the Pacific first, in 1861 ●●

1861 Mark Twain is initiated a Freemason 0 cit. Samuel Clemens, known as Mark Twain, was initiated into Polar Star Lodge No. 79 in St. Louis in 1861 and was raised to Master Mason within a few months. This is documented in the lodge's own records. culture / society ●

c. 1861 Construction of the New York County Courthouse becomes a vehicle for fraud 0 cit. Construction of a new county courthouse, later known as the Tweed Courthouse, began with an authorized budget of a few hundred thousand dollars. Under the Tweed Ring's control of city contracts, costs were inflated through padded bills and kickbacks to contractors and officials, and the building was still unfinished years later at many times its original budget. economy / politics ●●●

c. 1861 Pasteur and the germ theory of disease 0 cit. Louis Pasteur's experiments argued that microbes, not spontaneous generation or bad air, cause fermentation and disease. His public swan-neck flask demonstration was carefully staged to win the argument. The germ theory transformed medicine, surgery, and public health. science ●●●

1861 The Canning Award Splits Zanzibar from Oman 0 cit. When Seyyid Said died in 1856 his sons disputed the succession. In 1861 a British arbitration, the Canning Award, formally separated Zanzibar and its coast from Muscat and Oman, with Britain already the arbiter of the sultanate's affairs. diplomacy / politics ●●

1861 Malindi refounded as a plantation town 0 cit. Malindi had stood in ruins for generations when Sultan Majid of Zanzibar had it resettled from 1861. Settlers laid out large grain estates on the fertile land behind the town and stocked them with enslaved labour. Within two decades Malindi had become one of the most productive plantation districts on the whole coast. economy / society ●●●

1862 to 1877 Dungan Revolt 0 cit. no story Hui Muslim communities in northwest China rise against Qing rule in a war entangled with famine and massacre. Millions die and whole regions are depopulated before the Qing reconquest. religion / war ●●●

1862 Founding of Standard Bank 0 cit. The Standard Bank of British South Africa is chartered in London in 1862 and opens its first branch in Port Elizabeth in 1863, financing the Eastern Cape wool trade. It grows into Africa's largest banking group by assets. economy ●●●

1862 Founding of UBS 0 cit. The Bank in Winterthur is founded to serve Swiss trade and industry, the earliest root of the Union Bank of Switzerland. The 1998 merger of Union Bank of Switzerland with Swiss Bank Corporation creates UBS, the world's largest wealth manager. economy ●●●

15 May 1862 Founding of the Department of Agriculture 0 cit. Abraham Lincoln signs the act creating an agriculture department, which he later calls the people's department in a nation of farmers. It gains cabinet rank in 1889 and grows into a vast science, food, and rural-policy agency. economy / society ●●●

20 May 1862 Homestead Act 0 cit. Lincoln signs a law offering 160 acres of public land to any adult who lives on and improves it for five years. Some 270 million acres eventually pass to about 1.6 million homesteaders, reshaping settlement of the West. exploration / society ●●●

1 July 1862 Founding of the IRS and the First Income Tax 0 cit. To finance the Civil War, Lincoln signs the Revenue Act of 1862, creating the office of Commissioner of Internal Revenue and a national income tax. The wartime tax lapses but the bureau survives as the Internal Revenue Service. economy / war ●●●

2 July 1862 Morrill Land-Grant Act 0 cit. Congress grants federal land to the states to endow colleges teaching agriculture and the mechanic arts. The act seeds dozens of public universities, from Cornell to MIT to the great state schools of the Midwest and West. science / society ●●●

1862 Publication of Rome and Jerusalem 0 cit. Moses Hess published Rome and Jerusalem in 1862, an early call for a Jewish national home. It anticipated later political Zionism. culture / politics ●

1862 The United States greenback 0 cit. To finance the Civil War, the Union issued paper notes called greenbacks that were legal tender but not redeemable in gold. They marked a major move toward government-issued paper money in the United States. economy / politics / war ●●●

1862 The Morrill Act creates land-grant colleges 0 cit. The Morrill Act of 1862 gave states federal land to fund colleges teaching agriculture and engineering. It opened higher education to far more Americans and built many state universities. economy / politics ●●●

1862 There was some question as to the legality of the proposed i rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story There was some question as to the legality of the proposed issue, and either Morgan or Carlisle dusted off an 1862 statute that granted the Lincoln administration emergency powers to buy gold during t... ●●

1862 Clark and Rockefeller annual profits reach $17,000 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1862, the commodity business of Clark and Rockefeller produces annual profits of $17,000, nearly four times the profits from their only prewar year, powered by Civil War inflation. ●●

1862 Upon becoming Ministerpräsident in 1862, Bismarck ... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Upon becoming Ministerpräsident in 1862, Bismarck had asked the Austrian ambassador to convey to his Emperor the startling proposition that ●●

1862 Information history in 1862 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story vin, imprinted the second law on the popular imagination by reveling in its bleakness: “Although mechanical energy is indestructible,” he declared in 1862, “there is a universal tendency to its dissip ●●