Events, Verisoph

c. 400 Friday is named for Frigg, the Germanic goddess 0 cit. The Roman day of Venus became Friday, named for the goddess Frigg or Freya, matched to the goddess of love. French kept the Venus form as vendredi. religion / society ●●

c. 400 The mother-and-child image passes from Isis to Christian art 0 cit. The widespread image of Isis nursing the infant Horus is often compared to later depictions of Mary and the Christ child. Art historians note the visual echo between the two devotional images. culture / religion ●●

c. 400 The Germanic gods name the days of the week 0 cit. Germanic peoples map the Roman planetary week onto their own gods: Tiw's day (Tuesday), Woden's day (Wednesday), Thunor's day (Thursday), and Frigg's day (Friday). Four days of the modern English week still carry the names of the Norse gods. culture / religion ●●●●

400 Bourne, ‘The Messianic Prophecy in Vergil’s Fourth Eclogue’, Classical Journal, II (1916), rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bourne, ‘The Messianic Prophecy in Vergil’s Fourth Eclogue’, Classical Journal, II (1916), 390-400 ●●

c. 400 Redaction of the Jerusalem Talmud 0 cit. Scholars in the Galilee produced the Jerusalem Talmud, a commentary and expansion on the Mishnah known as the Gemara. Left unfinished under Roman pressure, it remained shorter and less authoritative than its Babylonian counterpart. culture / religion ●●

c. 400 Bantu-speaking farmers and fishers settle the coast 5 cit. Speakers of Sabaki, a Northeast Coast Bantu tongue and the parent of Kiswahili, settled the Kenyan and Tanzanian coast and islands in the first millennium CE. They farmed, fished, and worked iron, and their villages grew into the earliest Swahili towns. This African root, not foreign settlement, is the base of Swahili society. economy / society ●●●

c. 405 Mesrop Mashtots creates the Armenian alphabet 0 cit. The monk and scholar Mesrop Mashtots devises a distinct alphabet for the Armenian language, reportedly to make scripture and learning available in the vernacular. The script gives Armenians a durable written identity that outlasts every empire that later rules them. It remains in use, little changed, to this day. culture / religion / science ●●●

c. 405 to c. 500 Golden Age of Armenian letters 0 cit. With the new alphabet, the fifth century becomes a golden age of Armenian writing. Scholars translate the Bible and Greek and Syriac works into Armenian, and historians such as Movses Khorenatsi and Koryun set down the nation's early history. This literary foundation helps preserve Armenian culture through later centuries of foreign rule. culture / religion ●●

408 102 Sundkler and Steed, 408, 906 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 102 Sundkler and Steed, 408, 906 ●●

24 August 410 Sack of Rome by Alaric 0 cit. On 24 August 410 CE the Visigoths under Alaric captured and sacked the city of Rome. It was the first time in nearly 800 years that Rome had fallen to a foreign enemy, a shock felt across the Roman world. politics / war ●●●●

414 414-15), was widely discountenanced by the clergy in an effort to concentrate rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 414-15), was widely discountenanced by the clergy in an effort to concentrate the minds of the laity on the Mass, and in large sections of the Catholic world it disappeared ●●

415 Hypatia murdered by mob in Alexandria ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Blavatsky records the murder of Hypatia, the Neo-Platonic philosopher and mathematician, by a Christian mob at the instigation of Bishop Cyril of Alexandria—a key event in her narrative of the suppression of ancient wisdom by Christian authorities. ●●

415 Hypatia of Alexandria and the end of an age 0 cit. Hypatia taught mathematics and astronomy and edited commentaries on Apollonius and Diophantus, one of the few women of antiquity whose scholarly work is recorded. She was murdered by a mob amid the religious and political strife of a declining Alexandria. Her death is often used as a symbol for the fading of the classical mathematical tradition in the Mediterranean. politics / religion / science ●●

420 Schacht, Nietzsche, Genealogy, Morality: Essays on Nietzsche’s Genealogy of Morals (Berkeley, CA, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Schacht, Nietzsche, Genealogy, Morality: Essays on Nietzsche’s Genealogy of Morals (Berkeley, CA, 1994), 420 ●●

c. 420 The deicide charge and Augustine's doctrine of the Jewish witness 0 cit. Early Church writers accused the Jewish people as a whole of killing Christ, a charge known as deicide that fed centuries of hostility. Augustine of Hippo argued that Jews should not be killed but preserved in a subjected state as living witnesses to the truth of Christian scripture, citing the psalm verse slay them not. His witness doctrine both justified their subjugation and, in principle, restrained outright massacre. culture / religion / society ●●●

422 ), The Cambridge History of Judaism II: The Hellenistic Age (Cambridge, 1989), rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ), The Cambridge History of Judaism II: The Hellenistic Age (Cambridge, 1989), 226, 294, 302, 422, 485 ●●

c. 426 Augustine Sets Out Just War Criteria 0 cit. In The City of God, completed around 426, Augustine of Hippo argued that war could be morally justified when waged by legitimate authority, for a just cause, and with right intention, rather than out of hatred or lust for power. His arguments, developed across several of his writings, became the foundation of the Christian just-war tradition. Later thinkers, including Thomas Aquinas, built directly on Augustine's criteria. religion / war ●●●

c. 427 Nalanda becomes a major center of learning 0 cit. Nalanda grew into a large Buddhist monastic university that drew students from across Asia to study logic, medicine, and scripture. It flourished for centuries before its decline in the twelfth century. religion / science ●●●

427 McKechnie, ‘Christian Grave-inscriptions from the Familia Caesaris’, JEH, 50 (1999), 427-41, at rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story McKechnie, ‘Christian Grave-inscriptions from the Familia Caesaris’, JEH, 50 (1999), 427-41, at 439, and see p ●●

428 20 BCE-50 CE) philosophes Philosophy; Byzantine; and Christianity; Greek ; Jewish 66; rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 20 BCE-50 CE) philosophes Philosophy; Byzantine; and Christianity; Greek ; Jewish 66; Latin; Western; see also Aristotle; Neoplatonism; Plato physicality in worship physis Pietà: see Mary: sufferings Pietism Pilgrim Fathers pilgrimage; attacked; to C ●●

429 Brent, ‘The Enigma of Ignatius of Antioch’, JEH, 57 (2006), 429- 56, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Brent, ‘The Enigma of Ignatius of Antioch’, JEH, 57 (2006), 429- 56, at 429-32 ●●

22 June 431 Council of Ephesus 0 cit. The third ecumenical council condemns Nestorius and affirms Mary's title Theotokos, bearer of God. The dispute drives the Church of the East into a lasting separate existence. religion ●●●

c. 432 Saint Patrick's mission and the Christianising of Ireland 0 cit. Later tradition dates the mission of Saint Patrick, a Romano-British cleric once enslaved in Ireland, to around 432. His own writings survive, but much of his life is legend added by later medieval writers. Over the fifth and sixth centuries Christianity spread across a Gaelic Ireland that lay beyond the old Roman frontier, blending with existing Celtic culture rather than arriving by conquest. culture / religion ●●

433 56 Brent, ‘The Enigma of Ignatius of Antioch’, 433 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 56 Brent, ‘The Enigma of Ignatius of Antioch’, 433 ●●

c. 434 to c. 453 Hunnic Wars of Attila 0 cit. no story Attila's Huns ravage the Balkans, Gaul, and Italy, extracting tribute from both Roman empires. His empire collapses after his death, but the invasions accelerate the fall of the Roman West. war ●●●●

439 McKechnie, ‘Christian Grave-inscriptions from the Familia Caesaris’, JEH, 50 (1999), 427-41, at rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story McKechnie, ‘Christian Grave-inscriptions from the Familia Caesaris’, JEH, 50 (1999), 427-41, at 439, and see p ●●

441 441-2), but in union with Roman Catholicism since the twelfth century rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 441-2), but in union with Roman Catholicism since the twelfth century ●●

442 Senyk,A History of the Church in Ukraine, I: To the End of rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Senyk,A History of the Church in Ukraine, I: To the End of the Thirteenth Century (Orientalia Christiana Analecta, 243, 1993), 442-3 ●●

448 Beulay, L’enseignement spirituel de Jean de Dalyatha: mystique syro-oriental du VIIIe siècle rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Beulay, L’enseignement spirituel de Jean de Dalyatha: mystique syro-oriental du VIIIe siècle (Paris, 1990), 62, 448 (qu ●●

450 Finn, Almsgiving in the Later Roman Empire: Christian Promotion and Practice 313-450 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Finn, Almsgiving in the Later Roman Empire: Christian Promotion and Practice 313-450 (Oxford, 2006), esp ●●

8 October 451 Council of Chalcedon 0 cit. The fourth ecumenical council defines Christ as one person in two natures, divine and human. Churches in Egypt, Syria, and Armenia reject the formula, creating the Oriental Orthodox split that endures today. religion ●●●●

451 PART V: ORTHODOXY: THE IMPERIAL FAITH (451-1800) 13: Faith in a New rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story PART V: ORTHODOXY: THE IMPERIAL FAITH (451-1800) 13: Faith in a New Rome (451-900) 1 Stevenson (ed ●●

451 6: The Imperial Church (300- 451) The turning point created by Constantine rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 6: The Imperial Church (300- 451) The turning point created by Constantine is still best encountered through a remarkable example of how to present history compellingly for novices, A ●●

451 Event from 451 CE rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Historical event from 451 CE ●●

451 Battle of Avarayr 0 cit. Armenian forces under Vardan Mamikonian fight the Sassanid Persian army, which is trying to force Armenians to abandon Christianity for Zoroastrianism. The Armenians lose the battle and Vardan is killed, but sustained resistance leads to the Nvarsak treaty of 484, which secures the right to practice Christianity. Avarayr becomes a lasting symbol of Armenian faith and identity. religion / war ●●

c. 452 Leo the Great turns back Attila legendary 0 cit. Pope Leo I met Attila the Hun near Mantua and, by tradition, persuaded him to withdraw from Italy. The episode became a symbol of the bishop of Rome acting where the Western emperors could not. politics / religion ●●●

453 1850 and 1912 to just over 21,000, the number of women in rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1850 and 1912 to just over 21,000, the number of women in monastic life had risen astonishingly from 8,533 to 70,453 ●●

c. 460 Buddhist cave temples of Yungang and Longmen 0 cit. Under the Northern Wei, artisans carved monumental Buddha images into cliff faces at Yungang and later Longmen. The grottoes mark the deep rooting of Buddhism in China. culture / religion ●●●●

461 Frend, Creeds, Councils and Controversies: Documents Illustrating the History of the Church rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Frend, Creeds, Councils and Controversies: Documents Illustrating the History of the Church AD 337-461 (London, 1989) ●●

463 Chadwick, ‘Paul VI and Vatican II’, JEH, 41 (1990), 463 - 9, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Chadwick, ‘Paul VI and Vatican II’, JEH, 41 (1990), 463 - 9, at 464 ●●

468 (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1988), 468 and n rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1988), 468 and n ●●

4 September 476 Fall of the Western Roman Empire 0 cit. The Germanic general Odoacer deposes the boy emperor Romulus Augustulus, ending the line of Western Roman emperors. The date marks the conventional close of antiquity and the start of the medieval world in Europe. politics ●●●●●

476 Rome falls, and the East survives contested 0 cit. The Germanic commander Odoacer deposed the boy emperor Romulus Augustulus and sent the western imperial regalia to Constantinople, an act later marked as the end of the western Roman Empire. The eastern half carried on unbroken, still calling itself Roman and still governed from Constantinople. Historians debate how sharp a break 476 really was, since imperial authority in the west had been fading for decades. politics / war ●●●

c. 476 The empire that called itself Roman 0 cit. Its people never called themselves Byzantines. They were Rhomaioi, Romans, heirs of an unbroken state that ran from Augustus to 1453. The label 'Byzantine' was coined by the German scholar Hieronymus Wolf in 1557 and spread among later historians, partly to deny the Greek-speaking Orthodox east a claim on the Roman name. The term is a modern convenience for a state that saw itself simply as Rome. culture / society ●

479 479), and it was a cult much encouraged by members of the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 479), and it was a cult much encouraged by members of the Orthodox Theology Faculty of the University of Belgrade, reinforced by exiled Russian academics ●●

485 ), The Cambridge History of Judaism II: The Hellenistic Age (Cambridge, 1989), rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ), The Cambridge History of Judaism II: The Hellenistic Age (Cambridge, 1989), 226, 294, 302, 422, 485 ●●

490 Mitrokhin, The Mitrokhin Archive II: The KGB and the World (London, 2005), rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Mitrokhin, The Mitrokhin Archive II: The KGB and the World (London, 2005), 490 - 91, and Pls ●●

492 492-6); Gregory(‘The Great’; c rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 492-6); Gregory(‘The Great’; c ●●

494 Gelasius I and the doctrine of two powers 0 cit. In a letter to Emperor Anastasius I, Pope Gelasius I argued that the world is ruled by two powers, the sacred authority of priests and the royal power of kings. The text became a foundation for later claims of Church independence from the state. politics / religion ●●●

c. 499 Aryabhata and place value in classical India 0 cit. In a compact verse text the astronomer Aryabhata worked with a decimal place-value system, computed a sharp value of pi, and gave methods for square and cube roots. Indian mathematicians used a positional decimal system with nine digits, the seedbed from which a true zero would grow. His work also advanced the sine tables at the heart of later trigonometry. science ●●●

c. 500 The Babylonian Talmud is completed 0 cit. The academies of Babylonia complete the core redaction of the Babylonian Talmud, a vast record of legal debate and lore built on the Mishnah. It becomes the central text of Jewish law and study. culture / religion ●●●●

c. 500 Compilation of the Babylonian Talmud 0 cit. Jewish scholars in Babylon compiled the Babylonian Talmud around 500 CE, a central text of rabbinic law and tradition. Babylon remained a major center of Jewish learning for centuries. culture / religion ●●●

500 Reign rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Around 500 BCE, the Romans replaced their king with a republic-a political innovation of enormous consequence. Most of the enormous ter ritory that we know as the Roman empire was ... ●●

500 500-548), Plate Theodore of Mopsuestia (c rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 500-548), Plate Theodore of Mopsuestia (c ●●

500 Composition of the Hekhaloth literature ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Written compilation of Merkabah texts describing celestial palaces and ascent practices for mystics ●●

c. 500 The Kaaba and pre-Islamic Arabia 0 cit. Before Islam, Mecca is a trading town whose Kaaba shrine houses idols of many tribal gods; Muslims later call this era the jahiliyya, the age of ignorance. Pilgrimage and trade fairs draw Arabian tribes to the city. This is the world into which Muhammad is born around 570. culture / religion / society ●●

c. 500 Tiwanaku rises by Lake Titicaca 0 cit. On the high altiplano near Lake Titicaca, Tiwanaku grows into a major ceremonial and political center with monumental stonework such as the Gateway of the Sun. It spread its influence through colonies and trade across the southern Andes before declining around 1000 CE, possibly amid drought. culture / society ●●

c. 500 to c. 600 Redaction of the Babylonian Talmud 0 cit. The academies of Babylonia produced the Talmud Bavli, a vast record of legal argument, story, and debate built on the Mishnah. Editors such as Ravina and Rav Ashi are credited with its main redaction, though final polishing by the later Savoraim ran into the following century. It became the central text of rabbinic study. culture / religion ●●●

c. 500 Bantu-speaking farmers settle the highlands and southeast 1 cit. Iron-working, farming communities speaking Bantu languages spread into the region over centuries, becoming the ancestors of peoples such as the Kikuyu, Kamba, Embu, Meru, and the coastal Mijikenda. They cleared and cultivated the fertile central highlands and traded with pastoralist neighbors. Scholars place the main settlement across the first millennium CE, so the start date is approximate. economy / society ●●

c. 500 Bantu-speaking farmers reach the Lake Victoria basin 0 cit. Iron-using, grain- and cattle-keeping Bantu speakers spread into the Lake Victoria region during the first millennium CE, part of the long Bantu expansion out of the Cameroon-Nigeria borderland. Linguistics and archaeology, not written records, place them here; the western Bantu of Kenya descend from these settlers who mixed with earlier hunter-gatherers and later Nilotic neighbours. The date is a broad estimate rather than a fixed event. economy / society ●●●

501 , Tübingen, 1996), I, 501-10, esp rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story , Tübingen, 1996), I, 501-10, esp ●●

515 Pope, ‘Demythologising the Evan Roberts Revival, 1904- 1905’, JEH, 57 (2006), 515-34, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Pope, ‘Demythologising the Evan Roberts Revival, 1904- 1905’, JEH, 57 (2006), 515-34, at 526, 530, and Anderson, 36 ●●

517 5- 6, 102-3, 134-6, 308-16, 517-19 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 5- 6, 102-3, 134-6, 308-16, 517-19 ●●

c. 520 Bodhidharma and the origins of Chan 0 cit. Tradition credits the Indian monk Bodhidharma with bringing to China the meditation-centered teaching that becomes Chan Buddhism. Transmitted to Japan centuries later, the school is known there as Zen. religion ●●●

524 1580 (New Haven and London, 1992), 524-63; see also essays in E rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1580 (New Haven and London, 1992), 524-63; see also essays in E ●●

525 Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Oxford, 1975; first published 1690), 525, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Oxford, 1975; first published 1690), 525, [Bk IV, Ch ●●

526 Pope, ‘Demythologising the Evan Roberts Revival, 1904- 1905’, JEH, 57 (2006), 515-34, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Pope, ‘Demythologising the Evan Roberts Revival, 1904- 1905’, JEH, 57 (2006), 515-34, at 526, 530, and Anderson, 36 ●●

1 August 527 Justinian takes the throne 0 cit. Justinian I became sole emperor and set out to restore the old Roman world in full, in territory, in law, and in faith. With his wife Theodora, a former actress and a formidable political partner, he drove a program of reconquest and reform. His reign became the high point of early Byzantine ambition. politics ●●

c. 529 Benedict founds Monte Cassino 0 cit. Benedict of Nursia establishes his monastery at Monte Cassino and writes his Rule for monastic life. The Rule becomes the template for Western monasticism for a thousand years. religion ●●●

529 Justinian closes the Academy of Athens 0 cit. The emperor Justinian shuts the Neoplatonic Academy of Athens, the last school of pagan philosophy descended from Plato. It is often taken as the symbolic end of ancient paganism. culture / religion ●●●

529 Justinian closes the Neo-Platonic school at Athens ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Blavatsky documents the closure of the Neo-Platonic philosophical school in Athens by order of Emperor Justinian, marking the institutional end of a tradition of esoteric wisdom teaching. ●●

January 532 The Nika riots nearly topple Justinian 0 cit. Rival chariot-racing factions, the Blues and Greens, united in revolt and set much of Constantinople ablaze, chanting 'Nika' (victory). With the mob proclaiming a new emperor, Justinian was ready to flee until Theodora reportedly urged him to stand. His general Belisarius trapped the crowds in the Hippodrome and killed tens of thousands, ending the rising in blood. politics / society ●●

533 1850 and 1912 to just over 21,000, the number of women in rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1850 and 1912 to just over 21,000, the number of women in monastic life had risen astonishingly from 8,533 to 70,453 ●●

533 Belisarius reconquers North Africa 0 cit. Justinian's general Belisarius landed in North Africa and crushed the Vandal kingdom in a swift campaign, returning the rich province to imperial rule. The victory opened Justinian's western reconquest and revived the dream of a Mediterranean ruled from one throne. It also stretched the empire's armies thin across a vast frontier. politics / war ●●

534 The Corpus Juris Civilis codifies Roman law 0 cit. A commission under the jurist Tribonian gathered centuries of tangled Roman law into a single ordered body, begun in 529 and revised by 534. The Code, Digest, and Institutes preserved Roman legal thought and carried it to later ages. Rediscovered in the medieval west, it became the foundation of the civil-law tradition across much of Europe. culture / politics / society ●●●

535 to 554 Gothic War of 535-554 0 cit. no story Emperor Justinian's generals reconquer Italy from the Ostrogoths in a two-decade war. The fighting devastates Italy and leaves it open to Lombard invasion. war ●●●

27 December 537 The Hagia Sophia rises over Constantinople 0 cit. Justinian rebuilt the great church of Holy Wisdom after the Nika fire, crowning it with a dome so wide and light it seemed to hang from heaven. On entering it he is said to have exclaimed that he had outdone Solomon. For nearly a thousand years it was the largest cathedral in Christendom and the heart of Orthodox worship, later a mosque and now a monument. culture / religion / technology ●●●

540 540; 590-604); Gregory VII (Hildebrand; Pope 1073-85); see also Gregorian Reform; Gregory rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 540; 590-604); Gregory VII (Hildebrand; Pope 1073-85); see also Gregorian Reform; Gregory XI (Pierre Roger de Beaufort; c ●●

c. 540 The reconquest of Italy from the Goths 0 cit. Belisarius and later the eunuch general Narses fought a long war to take Italy from the Ostrogoths, capturing Ravenna in 540 and finishing the struggle by 554. The campaigns restored imperial rule but wrecked the peninsula, ruining cities and starving the countryside. The exhausted gains were largely lost within a generation to the invading Lombards. politics / war ●●

541 to 767 First plague pandemic wikidata 0 cit. no story series of pandemics (541-767 c.e.) ●●●

541 The Plague of Justinian sweeps the empire 0 cit. A pandemic, now generally identified as bubonic plague, reached Constantinople and killed a large share of its people before spreading across the Mediterranean. Ancient writers give enormous death tolls that modern scholars treat with caution, but the toll was clearly severe. It drained the manpower and taxes Justinian needed and helped ensure his reconquests could not hold. science / society ●●●

548 500-548), Plate Theodore of Mopsuestia (c rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 500-548), Plate Theodore of Mopsuestia (c ●●

c. 550 The island of saints and scholars 0 cit. From the sixth century a network of Irish monasteries such as Clonmacnoise, Glendalough and Iona became centres of learning and manuscript work. Irish monks like Columba and Columbanus carried Latin and Christian scholarship back into a post-Roman Europe, which gave Ireland its reputation as an island of saints and scholars. The claim that Irish monks singlehandedly saved Western civilisation is a popular framing that historians treat as an overstatement. culture / religion ●●

c. 552 Buddhism reaches Japan 0 cit. The king of Baekje in Korea sends Buddhist images and scriptures to the Japanese court, the traditional date of Buddhism's arrival in Japan. Some sources place the event in 538. The new religion soon wins imperial patronage. religion ●●●

552 ), 552-67, at 561 and n rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ), 552-67, at 561 and n ●●

561 ), 552-67, at 561 and n rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ), 552-67, at 561 and n ●●

14 November 565 Justinian dies with the empire overstretched 0 cit. Justinian died having reconquered much of the west, but the effort left the treasury empty and the borders thinly held. His successors inherited a state exhausted by war, plague, and taxation. Within decades most of the western gains slipped away, and the empire turned to defending its Greek and Anatolian core. politics ●●

c. 578 Founding of Kongo Gumi 0 cit. Prince Shotoku brings builders from Baekje to construct the Shitenno-ji temple, and the Kongo family firm they establish becomes the world's oldest documented company. It builds Buddhist temples in Japan for over 1,400 years. culture / economy / religion ●●●

589 Sui reunification of China 0 cit. The Sui dynasty conquered the southern Chen in 589 CE, ending nearly three centuries of division. It rebuilt centralized government across a reunified empire. politics / war ●●●●●

589 China reunified under imperial rule ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The tripartite division of the Han realm was reversed in 589 A.D., marking the beginning of another cycle of Chinese imperial restoration. ●●

589 ) Apologists; see also Justin Martyr apophatic Christianity; defined apostles (disciples); female; rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ) Apologists; see also Justin Martyr apophatic Christianity; defined apostles (disciples); female; see also James; Paul of Tarsus; Peter; Philip; Twelve Apostles’ Creed apostolic succession in ministry episcopal Aquileia, ‘Council’ of (381) Aquinas, ●●

c. 589 to c. 1038 The Geonim lead the Babylonian academies 0 cit. The Geonim, heads of the academies of Sura and Pumbedita, served as the leading legal authorities of the Jewish world for centuries. Through written responsa to distant communities they turned the Talmud into a living, applied system of law. religion / society ●●

3 September 590 Gregory the Great becomes pope 0 cit. Gregory I takes office and turns the papacy into a governing institution, administering Rome, negotiating with kings, and sending missionaries to England. His pontificate is widely seen as the moment the medieval papacy takes shape. politics / religion ●●●●

590 to 604 Gregory the Great and the papal state 0 cit. Pope Gregory I governed Rome and its lands as a de facto ruler, organizing defense, food supply and diplomacy as imperial authority faded in Italy. His pontificate expanded the practical and political reach of the papacy. politics / religion / society ●●●

590 540; 590-604); Gregory VII (Hildebrand; Pope 1073-85); see also Gregorian Reform; Gregory rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 540; 590-604); Gregory VII (Hildebrand; Pope 1073-85); see also Gregorian Reform; Gregory XI (Pierre Roger de Beaufort; c ●●

c. 600 The stirrup 0 cit. Paired foot supports let a rider stay firmly seated and use weapons from horseback. The stirrup reshaped cavalry warfare across Asia and Europe. technology / war ●●●

c. 600 Brigid the goddess passes into a Christian saint and Candlemas 0 cit. The Irish goddess Brigid and her festival Imbolc in early February shaded into the cult of Saint Brigid and the feast of Candlemas. The blending shows how a pagan figure could be reworked as a Christian one. culture / religion ●●

c. 600 Paganism lingers in the countryside 0 cit. For centuries after the cities converted, rural Europe kept the old festivals, charms, and holy wells. Both 'pagan' and 'heathen' (dweller on the heath) meant country folk, because the old ways survived longest in the fields. religion / society ●●

600 Babylonian Talmud completed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Babylonian Talmud, the comprehensive compendium of dialogues among Jewish masters and students exploring ritualistic, ethical, and mystical questions, was completed around the 6th century A.D., formalizing the Rabbinic Age of Judaism. ●●

c. 600 The Wari expansion 0 cit. From its capital near modern Ayacucho, the Wari build an expansive state across much of highland Peru, marked by planned administrative centers and terraced farming. Many scholars see Wari roads and provincial administration as forerunners of methods the Inca later scaled up, though the relationship is debated. politics / society ●●