Events, Verisoph

1933 ke Faraday and Clerk Maxwell who never gave a thought to the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “As a matter of history, the scientific discoveries that have ultimately inured to the benefit of society either financially or socially have been mad ●●

1933 Von Neumann, Weyl, and Alexander join the IAS ai_extracted 1 cit. no story They were joined by John von Neumann, Hermann Weyl, and James Alexander in 1933, and Marston Morse in 1934 ●●

1933 “The other half of the year the staff will be technically on rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “The other half of the year the staff will be technically on vacation,” it was reported in 1933, “but Dr ●●

1933 “I would come to Fine Hall in the morning and look for von N rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “I would come to Fine Hall in the morning and look for von Neumann’s huge car,” remembers Israel Halperin, a student in 1933, “and when it was there, ●●

1933 Event of 1933 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story edia might convey, and the impressions they must absolutely avoid— especially at the first Birth Control in Asia conference, convened at the London Sc ●●

1933 Chicago World's Fair Motto rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The 1933 Chicago World's Fair featured the motto reflecting surveillance capitalism's approach to inevitabilism. ●●

1933 e Nazis had promised that upon assuming power rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story e Nazis had promised that upon assuming power they would rebuild Germany’s economy, dismantle its democracy, destroy the German Jewish community and establish Aryans as the master race. On January 30,1933, President Paul von Hindenburg, exasperated with fruitless all-night attempts to create a gover ●●

1933 ire propaganda operation was established under Joseph Goebbels rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ire propaganda operation was established under Joseph Goebbels to publicize the information.74 Simultaneously, American eugenicists kept day-to-day tabs on the Nazi eugenic program. As of January 30, 1933, however, the American- German eugenic partnership was obsolete. Germany was now completely lea ●●

1933 the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes became known as mere rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes became known as mere scientific fronts for Nazi ideology. The foundation’s own best contact within Rüdin’s institute, Dr. Walther Spielmeyer, confirmed in a November 3, 1933, letter, “Prof. Rüdin … also holds the post of Reichskomissar for Race Investigation.” Once word ●●

1933 act within Rüdin’s institute, Dr. Walther Spielmeyer, confirmed rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story act within Rüdin’s institute, Dr. Walther Spielmeyer, confirmed in a November 3, 1933, letter, “Prof. Rüdin … also holds the post of Reichskomissar for Race Investigation.” Once word surfaced in late 1933 of the foundation’s ties to Rüdin and his Munich-based Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Psychiatry, ●●

1933 IBM designs and runs Hitler's first census ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ws and all of Europe, IBM custom-designed the punch cards and other data processing solutions to streamline those campaigns into what the company described as “blitzkrieg efficiency. “111 It began in 1933, when the company designed and executed Hitler’s first census. From there, IBM’s involvement wi ●●

1933 Hitler, his articles continued to be cited in rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Hitler, his articles continued to be cited in Eugenical News.14 Even after the Nazis assumed power in 1933, the American eugenic and medical media kept Verschuer in the spotlight. In January of 1934, t h e Journal of the American Medical Association cited a paper he presented at the German Congress ●●

1933 rch.122 The mentality behind the foundation’s biological funding rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story rch.122 The mentality behind the foundation’s biological funding could best be seen in the words of Rockefeller Natural Science Director Warren Weaver. Just a few months after Hitler came to power in 1933, Weaver circulated a report to the trustees entitled “Natural Sciences-Program and Policy: Past ●●

1933 future, superior men?”123 In pursuing its breeding goals, rejected debunked ai_extracted 1 cit. no story future, superior men?”123 In pursuing its breeding goals, the Rockefeller Foundation could reassure itself and others that it was not actually furthering the pseudoscience of eugenics. In fact, that 1933 report to the trustees specifically stated, “The attack [for heredity research] planned, however ●●

1933 er reacted at once. He sent a sworn rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story er reacted at once. He sent a sworn statement to Otto Hahn, the occupation-appointed administrator of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes, insisting that he had always opposed racial concepts. “Even before 1933,” averred Verschuer, “but also after, I took personal risks and attacked, as a scientist, in sp ●●

1933 On the conference, see “Preliminary Conference on a Popula- tion Association for the United State... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On the conference, see “Preliminary Conference on a Popula- tion Association for the United States,” December 15, 1930; “Second Conference of the Population Association of America,” May 7, 1931; To... ●●

1933 Papen though he approved quotas in principle, did so only within the limits ‘permissible according t rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Papen though he approved quotas in principle, did so only within the limits ‘permissible according to current trade treaties’ and when Papen fell, there was no decisive action by Schleicher.’ This, however, drove the farm lobby into outright oppositi ●●

1933 Hitler gives first national radio address as Chancellor ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ya ‘Every Worker his Work’ On 1 February 1933, two days after his appointment as Chancellor, sweating with anticipation, Hitler recorded the first national radio address of his life.’ The unifying thread of his speech was the determin- ation of his g ●●

1933 Furthermore, his appointment in March 1933 may well have been conditional on his prior agreement to rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Furthermore, his appointment in March 1933 may well have been conditional on his prior agreement to substantial spending on work creation. ●●

1933 In 1933, given that there were 6 million un- employed and most of German industry was running at les candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1933, given that there were 6 million un- employed and most of German industry was running at less than 50 per cent capacity, this was not a hard balance to strike. ●●

1933 Todt appointed inspector general for German roads ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the last days of June 1933, z 46 “EVERY WORKER HIS WORK’ Todt was appointed as general inspector for German roads, with auth- ority over both the autobahns and major provincial roads. ●●

1933 As Hitler declared to representatives of industry in late September 1933, it was vital to avoid a se rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As Hitler declared to representatives of industry in late September 1933, it was vital to avoid a second psychological setback. ●●

1933 By 1933 the German trade balance began shifting inexor- ably into deficit and the Reichsbank’s limit rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1933 the German trade balance began shifting inexor- ably into deficit and the Reichsbank’s limited foreign exchange holdings drained rapidly away.** In January 1933 the national foreign exchange reserve had stood at over 800 million Reichsmarks. ●●

1933 Cabinet grants Schacht power to declare debt moratorium ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In April 1933 the cabinet gave Schacht carte blanche to instigate a moratorium on Germany’s international debts, at a moment of his choosing.” At first, Schacht hoped to exploit the confused situation in the United States by announcing an immediate d ●●

1933 Schacht convenes German creditors conference in Berlin ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At the end of May 1933 Schacht convoked a §i THE WAGES OF DESTRUCTION conference of Germany’s creditors in Berlin where he sought to persuade them of the need for at least a partial moratorium. ●●

1933 Mefo bills first issued to finance rearmament ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Small numbers of Mefo $ 54 “EVERY WORKER HIS WORK’ bills were issued in the autumn of 1933 to tide the early Luftwaffe contractors over a cash crisis.°* Large-scale disbursement began in April 1934, conveniently timed to coincide with the renewed pr ●●

1933 Rearmament budget set to triple civilian job spending ai_extracted 1 cit. no story According to the agreement of June 1933, military spending was to be almost three times larger than the combined total of all of the civilian work creation measures announced in 1932 and 1933. ●●

1933 Britain launches new disarmament proposals ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The opportunity presented itself in October 1933 when the British launched a new round of disarmament proposals. ●●

1933 The day ended with public speeches and a rally that joined together those who had been found work si rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The day ended with public speeches and a rally that joined together those who had been found work since 1933 and those still waiting for employment. ●●

1933 This is hardly surprising, when we bear in mind that the real wages of many workers fell quite sharp rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This is hardly surprising, when we bear in mind that the real wages of many workers fell quite sharply in 1933, as wages stagnated and prices for food began to rise. ●●

1933 Pressure on the balance of trade: monthly imports and exports (million Reichsmarks) discussions betw rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Pressure on the balance of trade: monthly imports and exports (million Reichsmarks) discussions between the Reichsbank and a number of Germany’s largest corporations.” In July 1933 Hitler stated to a key meeting of leading Nazis that the first wave o ●●

1933 With this in mind, big business had little good to expect from the government appointed by President rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story With this in mind, big business had little good to expect from the government appointed by President Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. ●●

1933 The reformed Reichsbank, the Reich Ministry of Economic Affairs, the Reich Labour Ministry and the R rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The reformed Reichsbank, the Reich Ministry of Economic Affairs, the Reich Labour Ministry and the Reich Ministry of Food and Agriculture were all products of World War I and its after- math.*’ Many of the regulatory systems introduced after 1933 had ●●

1933 Furthermore, though it is important to do justice to the shift in power relations between the state rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Furthermore, though it is important to do justice to the shift in power relations between the state and business that undoubtedly occurred in the early 1930s, we must be careful to avoid falling into the trap of viewing German business merely as the ●●

1933 This was clearly intended as part of a more general reorganiz- ation in the coal industry, which als candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This was clearly intended as part of a more general reorganiz- ation in the coal industry, which also included the notorious manoeuvrethrough which Paul Silverberg, Germany’s leading Jewish industrialist, was stripped of his control of the lignite pr ●●

1933 Vv Unlike in chemicals and steel, where the regime was dealing with large and well-established produ rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Vv Unlike in chemicals and steel, where the regime was dealing with large and well-established producers, the most dramatic industrial inter- vention of the Third Reich concerned an industry which in 1933 was a sector of completely insignificant prop ●●

1933 Berlin conference sets Nazi aircraft industry policy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The new dispensation was spelled out to the German aircraft industry at a conference held in Berlin on 20 October 1933, two days after the Junkers expropriation.”’ Greeting the aircraft industrialists in solemn silence with arm raised in salute, Goer ●●

1933 German advertising council restricts use of 'Volk' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In fact, by 1933 the use of the term ‘Volk’ had become so inflationary that the newly established German advertising council was forced to ban the unlicensed use of the term. ●●

1933 Propaganda Ministry commissions the People's Radio ai_extracted 1 cit. In May 1933 the Propaganda Ministry took the initiative by coming to an agreement with a group of radio manufacturers to push through the large-scale production of a new standard radio.*’ This was to be cheaper than any radio previously on the market ●●

1933 Nazi regime abolishes tax on newly bought cars ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In April 1933, the regime also announced the elimination of car tax on all newly acquired vehicles. ●●

1933 Ironically, it was not Ford, but Ford’s great rival that introduced Fordist mass- production to Germ rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Ironically, it was not Ford, but Ford’s great rival that introduced Fordist mass- production to German metalworking.” And the substantial increase in car ownership over which Hitler’s regime presided after 1933 was in large part driven by investment ●●

1933 If all the land held by farms over 500 hectares in 1933 had been compre- hensively expropriated and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story If all the land held by farms over 500 hectares in 1933 had been compre- hensively expropriated and used to create family farms of 20 hectares, the total number of new homesteads created would have been no more than 500,000. ●●

1933 In 1933, after the fall of Hugenberg, and again in 1934, after Kurt Schmitt resigned, Darré was rumo rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1933, after the fall of Hugenberg, and again in 1934, after Kurt Schmitt resigned, Darré was rumoured to be bidding to take over the Ministry of Economic Affairs. ●●

1933 This was an amount calculated to provide for the two-stage rearmament plan of 1933: four years to bu rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story This was an amount calculated to provide for the two-stage rearmament plan of 1933: four years to build a basic defensive capacity, four more years to build a significant offensive strike force. ●●

1933 The civilian labour service introduced in 1933 was to be trimmed back. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The civilian labour service introduced in 1933 was to be trimmed back. ●●

1933 1926-33 - Nicaragua - May rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1926-33 - Nicaragua - May 7 to June 5, 1926; August 27, 1926 to January 3, 1933: The coup d’état of General Chamorro aroused revolutionary activities leading to the landing of American marines to protect the interests of the United States ●●

1933 US troops leave Nicaragua, empowering Somoza's Guard ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When the American military forces left Nicaragua for the last time, in 1933, they left behind a souvenir by which the Nicaraguan people could remember them: the National Guard, placed under the direction of one Anastasio Somoza (just as in 1924 the U ●●

1933 Legislative action rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Lawrence Laughlin, The Federal Reserve Act: Its Origin and Problems (New York: Macmillan, 1933), p ●●

26 April 1933 Gestapo established as Nazi Germany's secret police 0 cit. Hermann Göring created the Geheime Staatspolizei, or Gestapo, initially in Prussia, to suppress political opposition to the Nazi regime. Under Heinrich Himmler it was absorbed into the SS security apparatus and given sweeping powers to arrest and detain people without judicial review, sending opponents to concentration camps. The Gestapo relied heavily on a network of civilian informants and became a defining instrument of Nazi terror. politics ●●●

27 May 1933 Century of Progress International Exposition 0 cit. Held during the Great Depression, this fair marked Chicago's centennial and emphasized scientific and technological progress as a message of optimism, with exhibits on new consumer technology, aviation, and industrial design. It ran for two seasons due to strong public demand despite the economic downturn. economy / science ●●

1933 Southern Rhodesia buys back its mineral rights ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Southern Rhodesia government purchased the British South Africa Company's mineral rights using money raised from African taxpayers, a transaction Nkrumah highlights as a burden shifted onto the colonised. ●●

27 February 1933 The Reichstag Fire is used to justify emergency powers contested 0 cit. A fire destroys the German parliament building weeks after Hitler becomes chancellor. The Nazi government blames Communists and uses the fire to persuade President Hindenburg to sign the Reichstag Fire Decree the next day, suspending civil liberties and enabling mass arrests of political opponents. Historians still debate exactly who set the fire, but its use as a pretext for emergency rule is documented fact, not conspiracy theory. politics ●●●

23 March 1933 The Enabling Act lets the Reichstag vote away its own power 0 cit. With Communist deputies already arrested and the chamber ringed by intimidating SA paramilitaries, the Reichstag passes the Enabling Act by the required two-thirds majority, allowing Hitler's cabinet to enact laws without parliamentary approval. It is the clearest documented case in modern history of a parliament legally dissolving its own authority, and it is the founding case study for later scholarship on how democracies collapse from within. politics ●●●

c. September 1933 Libyan Concentration Camps Closed 0 cit. Italian authorities began closing the Cyrenaican concentration camps after the resistance had been crushed and much of the pre-war population had died from disease, starvation, and executions. Survivors were resettled under continued Italian control, and colonization by Italian settlers accelerated in the following years. The episode remained largely absent from Italian public memory for decades after the war. society / war ●

November 1933 Fiorello La Guardia elected mayor 0 cit. Fiorello La Guardia, running as a Fusion reform candidate against Tammany, was elected mayor of New York City. His three terms in office reduced Tammany's control over city jobs and contracts through civil service reform and federal relief programs that bypassed the machine's patronage system. politics ●●●

c. 4 October 1933 San Joaquin Valley Cotton Strike 0 cit. About 18,000 cotton pickers, most of them Mexican and Mexican American, walked off the fields across California's San Joaquin Valley demanding higher piece rates, organized by the Cannery and Agricultural Workers Industrial Union. Growers and local vigilantes responded with armed attacks on strikers and their camps; at least three strikers were killed during the month-long strike before growers agreed to a partial wage increase. economy / society ●●

c. 1 March 1933 North Carolina Establishes Eugenics Board 0 cit. North Carolina created a state Eugenics Board with authority to approve sterilizations of people in state custody and, eventually, people receiving public welfare assistance outside institutions. Unlike many states, North Carolina's program grew after World War II and increasingly targeted poor women and Black women referred by county welfare departments and social workers, sterilizing more than 7,600 people before it ended. politics / society ●●

14 July 1933 Nazi Germany Passes Sterilization Law 0 cit. The Nazi government enacted the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring, mandating compulsory sterilization of people with conditions including schizophrenia, epilepsy, and hereditary blindness or deafness. German eugenicists, including Eugen Fischer and Ernst Rudin, had studied American sterilization statutes and cited California's program in particular as proof such a law could be implemented at scale. The law took effect January 1, 1934, and roughly 400,000 people were sterilized under it. politics / science / war ●●●

27 February 1933 Reichstag Fire 0 cit. The German parliament building was set ablaze weeks after Hitler became chancellor, and the Nazi government blamed a lone Dutch communist, Marinus van der Lubbe, who was tried and executed. The fire was used to suspend civil liberties and consolidate Nazi power. Whether the Nazis themselves secretly set the fire as a false-flag pretext, or opportunistically exploited a fire genuinely set by van der Lubbe acting alone, has been debated by historians for decades and remains formally unresolved; this event should be treated as contested, not settled. politics / war ●●●

15 June 1933 National Defense Act amendments create the dual-status Guard 0 cit. Amendments to the National Defense Act created the National Guard of the United States as a distinct federal reserve component, so that Guard members simultaneously held membership in their state militia and in a reserve of the United States Army. The change let the president order Guard units into federal active duty without going through the older, more cumbersome militia-draft process. It fixed the modern dual state-federal legal status that still governs the Guard. politics / war ●●●

5 December 1933 Prohibition repealed, enforcement bureau dissolved 0 cit. Ratification of the Twenty-First Amendment ended national Prohibition and, with it, the rationale for the Bureau of Prohibition, which was dissolved the following year. Its residual alcohol-tax functions passed to a Treasury unit that evolved into the Alcohol Tax Unit, the direct institutional ancestor of the later Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms. economy / politics ●●

27 February 1933 Reichstag Fire and the emergency decree 1 cit. The Reichstag building burns and the Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe is arrested at the scene. The Nazis blame a communist plot and the next day issue the Reichstag Fire Decree suspending civil liberties, opening a wave of arrests. Historians still debate whether van der Lubbe acted alone or the fire served Nazi aims, but its use to crush opposition is clear. politics ●●●

23 March 1933 Enabling Act passed in Germany 1 cit. With communist deputies barred and SA men filling the hall, the Reichstag passes the Enabling Act, letting the cabinet make laws without parliament. The act gives Hitler dictatorial powers under a veneer of legality and marks the legal end of the Weimar Republic. politics ●●●●

1933 Zemurray seizes control of United Fruit 0 cit. After selling his Cuyamel company to United Fruit, Sam Zemurray watches his stock lose value as the firm stumbles in the Depression. He storms a board meeting, reportedly declaring the directors were ruining the business, and takes over as the company's driving force. Under him United Fruit deepened its political meddling in Central America. economy ●●

1933 American oil wins the Saudi concession 0 cit. Standard Oil of California secured the concession to explore Saudi Arabia's oil, and struck commercial quantities in 1938. The venture grew into the Arabian American Oil Company, or Aramco, jointly owned by American firms. For its early decades Aramco set output and prices and kept most of the profit, with the Saudi state receiving royalties on terms the company controlled. diplomacy / economy ●●

1933 The 1933 identity cards fix ethnicity in law 1 cit. The Belgian administration carried out a census and issued identity cards that stamped every Rwandan as Hutu, Tutsi, or Twa, often using crude measures like cattle counts and physical features. What had been a shifting social category became a fixed, inherited, state-recorded race that a person could not escape. These cards followed families for generations and were later used at roadblocks in 1994 to sort who would live and who would die. Scholars widely name this colonial race classification as the documented engine of later ethnic violence. politics / society ●●●

c. 1933 The documented driver was colonial policy, not any secret lodge unproven 2 cit. Fringe conspiracy writing sometimes blames Masonic or secret-society plots for Rwanda's ethnic engineering. There is no credible evidence for any such claim, and serious historians do not entertain it. The documented driver is plain and well-recorded: Belgian colonial administration and Church thinking turned a fluid social order into a racial hierarchy through census, identity cards, and Hamitic race theory. Naming a hidden lodge only distracts from the real, traceable chain of colonial policy. politics / society ●

1933 The International Relief Association is founded at Einstein's suggestion 0 cit. American activists set up the International Relief Association to help Germans suffering under Adolf Hitler's new regime, at the urging of Albert Einstein, who had just fled Germany himself. This body was the direct ancestor of the International Rescue Committee. Its first work was aiding anti-Nazi refugees, trade unionists and Jews. politics / society ●●●

1933 The Nazis weaponize the Jewish finance lie legendary 1 cit. Nazi propaganda made the myth of Jewish financial and world control a core message, casting Jews as the hidden power behind both banking and communism to justify persecution. This lie helped pave the road to the Holocaust, in which six million Jews were murdered. The trope of international Jewish finance is not a harmless exaggeration; it was central to the deadliest genocide of the modern era and is false in every part. politics / war ●●●

1933 The Estado Novo and the drive to hold the colonies 0 cit. Antonio de Oliveira Salazar builds an authoritarian regime, the Estado Novo, and binds its legitimacy to keeping the African empire. As other powers began to let their colonies go, Portugal recast Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea as overseas provinces and refused to give them up. politics ●●

29 May 1933 Standard Oil of California wins the Saudi concession 0 cit. The new kingdom of Saudi Arabia grants an American company the right to explore its eastern desert for oil, a venture that became Aramco. The deal tied the United States to Saudi oil and marked American entry into a region Britain had dominated. diplomacy / economy ●●●

August 1933 Leaving Moscow as Padmore breaks with the Comintern 0 cit. The Comintern dissolved the ITUC-NW and Padmore resigned from the Communist Party in protest, later attacked in the Soviet press. Kenyatta left the Soviet Union and returned to London in August 1933. Biographers read his Moscow period as more tactical than doctrinaire, and he never joined the Communist Party; how deep his communism ever ran is still debated. politics ●●

c. 1933 MI5 Keeps a File on Kenyatta 0 cit. British intelligence treated Kenyatta as a subversive to be watched, not an asset to be groomed. The Security Service (MI5) opened and kept a file on him, now in the KV 2 series at the National Archives, tracking his contacts with the Communist Party, the League Against Imperialism, and his 1932-33 study in Moscow. The surveillance, and the later rigged Kapenguria trial, are the documented evidence that the colonial establishment feared him rather than cultivated him, a point that cuts against the theory that the British quietly built his career from the start. politics / society ●●

c. 1933 MI5 opens a file on Jomo Kenyatta 0 cit. MI5 began tracking the Kenyan nationalist Jomo Kenyatta in the 1930s, when he lived in Britain and visited Moscow. His personal file in the released KV series runs across decades of surveillance. The future first president of Kenya was watched as a suspected subversive long before Britain negotiated the handover of power to him. politics / society ●●●

1933 Arrested by the Nazis and deported from Germany 0 cit. After Hitler took power in 1933, Padmore was arrested in Hamburg, held in prison, and then deported. The Nazi crackdown shut down his base of operations in Germany. He made his way to Britain, where he would spend most of the rest of his life. politics / society ●●

c. 1933 The Comintern winds down its anti-colonial work 0 cit. As Moscow shifted toward a popular front against fascism, it sought alliances with Britain and France and softened its attacks on their empires. The International Trade Union Committee of Negro Workers was scaled back and effectively dissolved. Historian Leslie James argues that Padmore saw anti-colonial work being sacrificed to Soviet foreign policy, which drove his break. diplomacy / politics ●●●

20 February 1933 German industrialists back Hitler at a private meeting 1 cit. Three weeks after Hitler became chancellor, some two dozen leading German industrialists met privately with him and Hermann Goering. Hitler promised to crush the labor movement and rebuild the military, and the businessmen pledged large sums for the coming election. The meeting, arranged with Hjalmar Schacht, tied big German business to the new regime. economy / politics ●●●●

1933 German business pays into the Adolf Hitler Endowment 1 cit. After Hitler took power, major companies paid regular contributions into a fund known as the Adolf Hitler Endowment of German Industry. It channeled business money to the Nazi leadership on an ongoing basis. The arrangement bound German industry to the regime and bought a measure of quiet cooperation. economy / politics ●●

c. 1933 IBM's German subsidiary supplies punch-card machines 1 cit. IBM's German subsidiary Dehomag leased and serviced Hollerith punch-card tabulating machines used in German censuses and record-keeping. In his book IBM and the Holocaust, Edwin Black argues this data technology helped the regime identify and track victims. Black's charge of knowing complicity is his interpretation; the machines and the business relationship are documented. economy / technology ●●●

c. 1933 Luhya families are displaced and given token compensation 4 cit. Luhya families whose land fell inside the mining area were moved aside so prospecting and mining could go ahead. Compensation was small and set by the administration, not by the people who lost the use of their land. The reserve had been redrawn around European interests, and its residents had little say in the outcome. economy / society ●●●

December 1933 A US court clears Ulysses of obscenity 0 cit. In United States v. One Book Called Ulysses, a federal judge ruled James Joyce's novel not obscene, judging a work as a whole and by its literary intent rather than by isolated passages. It began the retreat of the Hicklin test in America. ●●

c. 1933 Kalecki sketches a demand-led theory of output 1 cit. Michal Kalecki developed an independent demand-led macroeconomics in the early 1930s, before The General Theory appeared in English. His work is a useful warning against treating Keynesian economics as one man inventing the whole field from nothing; similar problems were pushing several economists toward aggregate-demand explanations. economy / science ●●●

1934 Balkan Pact wikidata 0 cit. no story Balkan international cooperation organization ●●●

12 September 1934 Baltic Entente wikidata 0 cit. no story Baltic 1934-1940 cooperation organization ●●●

6 June 1934 Founding of the SEC 0 cit. The Securities Exchange Act creates the Securities and Exchange Commission to police stock markets after the 1929 crash, with Joseph P. Kennedy as its first chairman. Mandatory disclosure and fraud enforcement become the rules of American finance. economy ●●●

October 1934 to 1935 The Long March 0 cit. Chinese communist forces retreat some 9,000 kilometers from Jiangxi to Shaanxi under Nationalist attack. The march secures Mao Zedong's leadership and becomes the founding legend of Chinese communism. politics / war ●●●

July 1934 to 1968 Hays Code enforced in Hollywood 0 cit. Hollywood's Motion Picture Production Code, written in 1930, gained real enforcement in July 1934 through the Production Code Administration. For decades it set moral limits on what American films could show. culture / society ●●●

19 June 1934 Communications Act of 1934 creates the FCC 0 cit. The Communications Act merged oversight of radio, telephone and telegraph under a new Federal Communications Commission. The FCC became the main federal regulator of American media. politics / technology ●●●●

c. 1934 to c. 1975 Sweden runs decades-long sterilization program 1 cit. Sweden forcibly or coercively sterilized around 60,000 people, mostly women, under eugenic and social policy. The program showed that eugenics took hold in democracies, not only under the Nazis. politics / society ●

November 1934 Marriner Eccles becomes head of the Federal Reserve 0 cit. Marriner Eccles, a Utah banker who backed government spending to fight the Depression, took charge of the Federal Reserve. Under the Banking Act of 1935 he reshaped the Fed into a stronger, more centralized institution. economy / politics ●●●

c. 1934 Schacht creates the Mefo bills to fund rearmament 0 cit. Schacht devised the Mefo bills, credit notes drawn on a dummy company and guaranteed by the Reichsbank, to hide the scale of German rearmament. The scheme let the state pay for weapons off the books until the bills came due. economy / war ●●●●

August 1934 Schacht becomes Minister of Economics and launches the New Plan 0 cit. Schacht took over the Economics Ministry and imposed the New Plan, using trade deals and exchange controls to steer resources toward rearmament. His management kept Germany's war buildup financed despite scarce foreign currency. economy / politics ●●●

c. 1934 L. Ron Hubbard builds a career as a pulp fiction writer 0 cit. Through the 1930s Hubbard wrote prolifically for pulp magazines, turning out adventure, western and science fiction stories. The output made him a fast and confident writer well before he devised Dianetics. culture ●●

1934 Canon began as Kwanon, named for a Buddhist deity 0 cit. The Japanese camera maker's first camera in 1934 was called Kwanon, after Kannon, also known as Guanyin, the Buddhist deity of mercy. The name was soon anglicized to Canon. economy / religion / technology ●●●

c. 1934 Cult of personality around a leader 0 cit. Dictators such as Stalin built cults that portrayed the leader as wise, heroic, and almost superhuman. The personality cult became a common tool of personalist dictatorship. culture / politics ●●●

1934 Shifting membership of the League of Nations Council ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Germany joined the League in 1926 and withdrew with Japan in 1933; the Soviet Union was admitted in 1934 and expelled in 1939 after attacking Finland. ●●

1934 German budget reveals rearmament (March 1934) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The German budget released in March 1934 showed 210 million marks for an air force forbidden by Versailles and a sharp increase in the army appropriation. ●●

1934 United States returns to gold at a devalued dollar ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On February 1, 1934, the United States went back on the gold standard at a large devaluation, cutting the gold content to 59.06 percent of the 1932 figure and offering to buy gold at $35 an ounce. ●●

1934 Hull Reciprocal Trade Program enacted ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The reciprocal trade act of 1934, renewed thereafter, let the US executive negotiate tariff cuts of up to 50 percent in exchange for concessions. Through most-favored-nation clauses these bilateral deals worked multilaterally. ●●

1934 Night of the Long Knives (blood purge) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On June 30, 1934, Hitler had the SS arrest SA leaders gathered at Bad Wiessee and shot most at once. Several thousand were killed, making the Nazi movement a counterrevolution of the Right protecting the economic status quo. ●●