Events, Verisoph

1959 The Draper Report urges US population aid 0 cit. A 1959 US advisory committee led by William Draper recommended that American foreign aid support birth control in developing countries. It helped push population control into official US policy despite early political resistance. economy / politics ●●

1959 J. P. Morgan and Company disappears into Guaranty Trust ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley traces the decline of the House of Morgan from a partnership founded in 1861 to incorporation in 1940 and its final absorption into the Guaranty Trust Company in 1959. ●●

1959 Khrushchev visits the United States ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Khrushchev's visit to the United States on September 15-17, 1959 marked a turning point in Soviet-American relations. Impressed despite himself by American prosperity, he revoked his six-month Berlin deadline at Camp David. ●●

1959 Castro marches into Havana ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The steady attrition of Batista's support let Castro's forces advance across Cuba, and on New Year's Day 1959 he marched into Havana. Within two weeks his firing squads began executing Batista supporters and dissidents. ●●

1959 Tibetan revolt crushed, Dalai Lama flees, 1959 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Chinese pressure on Tibet peaked in March 1959 with an attempt to arrest the Dalai Lama. The resulting revolt was crushed in two weeks and the Dalai Lama fled to India. ●●

1959 Fortune reveals where New York policy is really made, 1959 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto cites a 1959 Fortune article that described the private metropolitan clubs where national policy and major deals were actually decided in New York City. ●●

1959 Conant publishes The American High School Today ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto states that Conant's 1959 book The American High School Today drove the growth of large secondary schools and the consolidation of small school districts in the 1960s. He treats it as a lever for making schools bigger. ●●

1959 Eisenhower lays the CIA headquarters cornerstone ai_extracted 2 cit. no story President Eisenhower laid the cornerstone for the CIA's headquarters, calling comprehensive information essential to peace. He warned that in intelligence, success cannot be advertised and failure cannot be explained. ●●

1959 Bissell takes over clandestine service as Castro seizes power ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On the same day Richard Bissell became chief of the CIA's clandestine service, Fidel Castro came to power in Cuba. The coincidence framed the agency's next decade. ●●

1959 Bissell proposes eliminating Castro ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bissell sent Dulles a memo urging consideration of removing Fidel Castro. Dulles struck the word 'elimination' and substituted 'removal' before approving the effort. ●●

1959 Similar problems were afflicting the US economy, where expenditure on health, Medicare, income se... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Similar problems were afflicting the US economy, where expenditure on health, Medicare, income security and social security had risen from 4 per cent of GDP in 1959 to 9 per cent in 1975, outstripping defence spending for the first time. ●●

1959 Death of John Foster Dulles ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Secretary of State John Foster Dulles died on May 24, 1959, after shaping Cold War foreign policy. His funeral was broadcast live on national television. ●●

1959 At Christmas 1959, Anna had rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story At Christmas 1959, Anna had visited Israel with her parents and decided to live there. In 1962, age thirty-one, Anna married a real estate developer,... ●●

1959 Reynolds and TI win the British Aluminium War ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By January, 6,1959, Reynolds/TI announced that it had achieved majority control of British Aluminium stock. Siegmund Warburg had defied the British... ●●

1959 Roy Thomson acquires the Sunday Times ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In July 1959, Siegmund advised Roy Thomson, the Toronto barber’s son who owned a chain of Canadian newspapers, in his purchase of the Sunday Times.... ●●

1959 On his first visit in rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On his first visit in 1959, he was moved by his experience of a kibbutz. During the Six-Day War in 1967, Siegmund took up a collection among Jewish... ●●

1959 21. International Management Digest, March 19, 1959 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 21. International Management Digest, March 19, 1959. ●●

1959 1. WW. Series III. B18 F107, letter from rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1. WW. Series III. B18 F107, letter from John Schiff, January 13, 1959. ●●

1959 2. DS. Letter from Siegmund G. Warburg to rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 2. DS. Letter from Siegmund G. Warburg to John Schiff, December 11, 1959. ●●

December 1959 The Antarctic Treaty sets the continent aside for peace 0 cit. Twelve nations sign the Antarctic Treaty, freezing territorial claims and reserving the whole continent for peaceful scientific research. It is one of the most successful arms-control and conservation agreements ever made. diplomacy / science ●●●

1959 Freire's doctoral dissertation rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Paulo Freire's thought on the philosophy of education was first expressed in his doctoral dissertation at the University of Recife in 1959. This work later developed into the methodology he would use for teaching literacy. ●●

1959 Khrushchev submits draft Berlin peace treaty ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On January 10, 1959, Khrushchev submitted to the other three occupying powers a draft peace treaty which defined the new status of both Berlin and East Germany, implementing his demands regarding Berlin's demilitarization and future status. ●●

1959 1959: The son of an Army colonel stationed at the Pentagon, he had... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story of an Army colonel stationed at the Pentagon, he had gone west to study engineering at Berkeley in 1959. Even though the U.S. military buildup in Vietnam had not begun, Moore decided to become an anti ●●

1959 1959: orking capital necessary to keep inventing things. In January 1959 the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story orking capital necessary to keep inventing things. In January 1959 the lawyers and executives at Texas Instruments began scrambling to file a patent a ●●

1959 1959: rial to make the necessary electrical connections.” It was filed in Fe rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story rial to make the necessary electrical connections.” It was filed in February 1959. 11 When Texas Instruments made its public announ ●●

1959 1959: Instruments to enter into a cross-licensing deal. The Fairchild applic rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Instruments to enter into a cross-licensing deal. The Fairchild application was filed in July 1959. 12 As happened with the patent dispute over the ●●

1959 1959: aspiration of creating machines that could think. Many were students a rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story aspiration of creating machines that could think. Many were students at MIT’s Artificial Intelligence Lab, founded in 1959 by two professors who would ●●

1959 1959: to the Grateful Dead. Fred Moore was an example. The son of an Army co rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story to the Grateful Dead. Fred Moore was an example. The son of an Army colonel stationed at the Pentagon, he had gone west to study engineering at Berkel ●●

1959 icelli evolved numerical organisms that learned to play a si rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “This is a completely different philosophy from the philosophy which proclaims that the end of the world is at hand as soon as the first error has occ ●●

1959 had little more to do with the Institute after his departure rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Abraham Flexner, who died in 1959, had little more to do with the Institute after his departure in 1939 ●●

1959 “Speculations on Perceptrons and Other Automata rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Good, “Speculations on Perceptrons and Other Automata,” IBM Research Lecture RC-115, June 2, 1959, based on a lecture sponsored by the Machine Organiz ●●

1959 Event of 1959 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ” In 1959, shortly before he suc- ceeded Osborn to the presidency of the Council, Notestein wrote, “All of us were convinced that, so far as the weste ●●

1959 ng my family data heretofore furnished up to rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ng my family data heretofore furnished up to date.” In 1953, James Brunn, a realtor in Kansas City, Missouri, wrote requesting information to help trace his lineage back to the Revolutionary War. In 1959, Minnie Williams of Harrison, Ohio, wrote to say that she had finally assembled as much informa ●●

1959 e Draper Fund. The purpose: proliferate genetics as rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story e Draper Fund. The purpose: proliferate genetics as a legitimate study of human heredity.43 During the fifties, Osborn took extraordinary pains to never utter a provocative eugenic word. In a typical 1959 speech on genetics at Hunter College, Osborn was explicit, “We are not speaking here of any man ●●

1959 “Report of the Family Planning Third Five Year Plan Committee.” On incentives, see “Introduction ... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “Report of the Family Planning Third Five Year Plan Committee.” On incentives, see “Introduction to the Memorandum on Administrative Implementa- tion of Family Planning Policy,” in The Sixth Intern... ●●

1959 State Department circular, December 2, 1959, USNA, RG 59, Central Files, 1967–1969, Soc 13-3, box... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story State Department circular, December 2, 1959, USNA, RG 59, Central Files, 1967–1969, Soc 13-3, box 3124; NSC Meetings, May 28 and August 18, 1959, Dwight D. ●●

1959 “The Population Council”; Carroll to Overseas Representatives, April 1, 1959, and Hill to Ensming... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “The Population Council”; Carroll to Overseas Representatives, April 1, 1959, and Hill to Ensminger, April 15, 1959, both in FFA, 1953 Grant Files, PA59-482, “Government of India”; “Policy Paper: P... ●●

1959 Brackett, “Morgan’s Reorganized Railroads: How They Were Controlled,” unpublishe... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Brackett, “Morgan’s Reorganized Railroads: How They Were Controlled,” unpublished paper, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1959 ●●

1959 Robert Mullen and Company founded ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Levenda asserts that the Mullen Company was founded in 1959 as a front for the CIA, where E. Howard Hunt would later work after his retirement. ●●

1959 Texas Instruments unveils the solid circuit ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Texas Instruments publicly unveils Kilby's integrated circuit, calling it a solid circuit, at a New York engineering conference. ●●

1959 Noyce conceives his integrated circuit design ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Robert Noyce, working independently at Fairchild, writes in his notebook the idea of placing multiple devices on a single piece of silicon connected by printed metal lines. ●●

1959 French West and Equatorial African federations dissolved ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The federal institutions that had linked France's West and Equatorial African colonies were wound up, leaving small separate states unable to pool revenue, which Nkrumah presents as the deliberate mechanics of balkanisation. ●●

1959 Nkrumah opens the Bank of Ghana ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Nkrumah recalls his own speech opening the Bank of Ghana, in which he set out the decisive part a central bank must play in a country's drive for economic and financial self-government. ●●

1959 AFL-CIO wins control of the ICFTU executive ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The American AFL-CIO union centre fought for and won control of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions executive board at a Brussels meeting, extending Washington's reach into international labour politics. ●●

3 March 1959 Hola camp killings 0 cit. At the Hola detention camp in Kenya, guards beat eleven Mau Mau detainees to death and injured dozens more after they refused forced labor. The killings caused a political scandal in Britain and were among the abuses that colonial officials later worked to keep out of records that would pass to an independent Kenyan government, making Hola a central piece of evidence in the later cover-up litigation. politics / war ●●●

3 March 1959 Hola Camp Massacre 3 cit. Guards at the Hola detention camp beat eleven detainees to death and seriously injured dozens more after they refused forced labor, in an incident colonial officials initially tried to explain away as deaths from drinking contaminated water. A subsequent inquiry exposed the cover-up and the routine violence within the camp system, causing a political scandal in Britain. The massacre became a turning point in British public and parliamentary opinion against the emergency measures and contributed to the winding down of the detention system. politics / war ●●●

3 March 1959 Hola Massacre 1 cit. Guards at Hola detention camp beat to death eleven Mau Mau detainees who refused forced labor, part of the wider colonial detention system that police screening had fed. The killings were initially covered up as deaths from contaminated water before an official inquiry exposed the beatings, provoking outrage in the British Parliament and accelerating the end of detention without trial in Kenya. politics / war ●●●

4 January 1959 The Léopoldville riots 0 cit. Rioting broke out in the capital after authorities banned a political rally, and the Force Publique killed many demonstrators in the crackdown. The violence shocked Belgium and made clear that colonial control was collapsing faster than expected. Brussels quickly shifted toward granting independence. politics / society ●●

c. January 1959 The John Birch Society campaigns to get the US out of the UN 0 cit. The anti-communist John Birch Society launched a long Get US Out of the United Nations campaign, casting the organization as a vehicle for a coming one-world government. This is an attributed political narrative, not an established fact about the UN's purpose. It seeded a strand of American suspicion that would attach itself to the UN for decades to come. politics / society ●●

November 1959 The 1959 Hutu Revolution 0 cit. A wave of violence known as the Hutu Revolution swept the country, with Hutu crowds attacking Tutsi, burning homes, and killing thousands. Belgium, now backing the Hutu majority, let the monarchy collapse and oversaw the shift of power. Tens of thousands of Tutsi fled into neighboring Uganda, Burundi, Congo, and Tanganyika, the start of a refugee population that would shape the region for decades. politics / war ●●●

c. 1959 Moderate settlers accept African majority rule 0 cit. Michael Blundell and his New Kenya Group broke with settler hardliners and accepted that Kenya would move to a multiracial and then African-led government. Denounced as traitors by die-hards, they read the arithmetic correctly: the settlers could not win. Their shift cleared the way for the negotiated handover rather than a fight to the last. politics ●●

19 February 1959 The London Agreement on Cyprus 0 cit. On 19 February 1959 Britain, Greece, Turkey, and the two Cypriot community leaders, Archbishop Makarios and Fazil Kucuk, signed the London Agreement at Lancaster House. Building on terms agreed at Zurich days earlier, it set up an independent Cyprus with a Greek Cypriot president and a Turkish Cypriot vice-president and fixed power-sharing quotas. Cyprus became independent in August 1960, though the constitution soon broke down. diplomacy / politics ●●

23 September 1959 Dies in London and his ashes are interred in Ghana 0 cit. Padmore died in London in September 1959. His ashes were carried to Ghana and interred at Christiansborg Castle in Accra, in the country whose independence he had helped bring about. Historians including Leslie James argue that his influence on a generation of independence leaders has been under-remembered. politics / society ●●

March 1959 State of Emergency and detention at Gwelo 0 cit. On 3 March 1959 the colonial authorities declare a State of Emergency and, in Operation Sunrise, arrest Banda and hundreds of Congress activists. Banda is flown out and held in Gwelo prison in Southern Rhodesia; scores of Africans are killed in the wider crackdown. The future pro-Western life president is thus jailed by the British before independence. politics ●●●

1959 Commons rejects independent inquiry into the camps ai_extracted 1 cit. Despite mounting evidence of abuse and eyewitness affidavits from former prison officers, the House of Commons voted in February 1959 against an independent inquiry into Kenya's prisons and detention camps. The motion failed along party lines, 232 to 288. ●●

1959 Serengeti and Ngorongoro evictions push the Maasai out 0 cit. When the Serengeti National Park was fixed in 1959 the Maasai living inside it were moved out and resettled in the neighbouring Ngorongoro Conservation Area. There they faced tightening limits on grazing and cultivation in the name of protecting wildlife. It began a long pattern in Tanzania of treating Maasai land use as a threat to conservation. environment / politics ●●●

19 April 1960 April Revolution wikidata 0 cit. no story popular uprising in South Korea in April 1960 by labor and student groups, precipitated by the killing of a high school student by a tear-gas shell in March; led to the resignation of the president S. Rhee and the transition to the Second Republic ●●●

April 1960 Finance Minister Sato declines to revise the BoJ Law ai_extracted 1 cit. In April 1960 the new finance minister Eisaku Sato declared that with two conflicting committee recommendations he could not introduce legislation to change the BoJ Law, leaving MoF's legal supremacy over the central bank intact. ●●●

1960 Ikeda becomes prime minister with the income doubling plan ai_extracted 1 cit. Hayato Ikeda became prime minister in 1960 and made the income doubling plan his cabinet's major policy aim, with fiscal expenditures rising more than 25 percent per year on the back of high growth. ●●●

1960 U.S.-Japan Security Treaty pushed through the Diet ai_extracted 1 cit. In 1960 Prime Minister Kishi pushed the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty through the Diet despite severe public opposition, having police remove opposing politicians; the treaty was ratified at the cost of his career. ●●●●

14 September 1960 Founding of OPEC 0 cit. Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela found the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries at a conference in Baghdad to coordinate oil policies against the dominance of Western oil companies. diplomacy / economy / politics ●●●

3 May 1960 Founding of the European Free Trade Association 0 cit. The Stockholm Convention enters into force, creating EFTA among seven European states as a free trade alternative to the European Economic Community. diplomacy / economy ●●

1 August 1960 Independence of Benin 0 cit. no story Dahomey, later renamed Benin, becomes independent from France during the wave of African decolonization in 1960. politics ●●●

5 August 1960 Independence of Burkina Faso 0 cit. no story Upper Volta, renamed Burkina Faso in 1984, becomes independent from France. politics ●●●

1 January 1960 Independence of Cameroon 0 cit. no story French Cameroon becomes independent; the southern British Cameroons joined it in 1961 to form a federal republic. politics ●●●

13 August 1960 Independence of the Central African Republic 0 cit. no story The Central African Republic becomes independent from France, formerly the colony of Ubangi-Shari. politics ●●●

11 August 1960 Independence of Chad 0 cit. no story Chad becomes independent from France, with Francois Tombalbaye as its first president. politics ●●●

30 June 1960 Independence of the Democratic Republic of the Congo 0 cit. no story The Belgian Congo becomes independent with Patrice Lumumba as prime minister, followed quickly by the Congo Crisis. politics ●●●

15 August 1960 Independence of the Republic of the Congo 0 cit. no story The French Congo becomes the independent Republic of the Congo with Brazzaville as its capital. politics ●●●

16 August 1960 Independence of Cyprus 0 cit. no story Cyprus becomes an independent republic after British rule, under a power-sharing constitution between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. politics ●●●

17 August 1960 Independence of Gabon 0 cit. no story Gabon becomes independent from France, the last of the French Equatorial African states to do so in August 1960. politics ●●●

7 August 1960 Independence of Ivory Coast 0 cit. no story Ivory Coast becomes independent from France under Felix Houphouet-Boigny. politics ●●●

26 June 1960 Independence of Madagascar 0 cit. no story Madagascar becomes independent from France as the Malagasy Republic. politics ●●●

22 September 1960 Independence of Mali 0 cit. no story After the short-lived Mali Federation with Senegal collapses, the Republic of Mali proclaims its full independence. politics ●●●

28 November 1960 Independence of Mauritania 0 cit. no story Mauritania becomes independent from France as the Islamic Republic of Mauritania. politics ●●●

3 August 1960 Independence of Niger 0 cit. no story Niger becomes independent from France with Hamani Diori as its first president. politics ●●●

1 October 1960 Independence of Nigeria 0 cit. no story Nigeria, Africa's most populous country, becomes independent from Britain. politics ●●●●

4 April 1960 Independence of Senegal 0 cit. no story Senegal signs the independence agreement with France as part of the Mali Federation, becoming a separate republic when the federation split in August 1960. politics ●●●

1 July 1960 Independence of Somalia 0 cit. no story British Somaliland and the Italian-administered trust territory unite as the independent Somali Republic. politics ●●●

27 April 1960 Independence of Togo 0 cit. no story French Togoland becomes the independent Togolese Republic. politics ●●●

5 July 1960 to 25 November 1965 Congo Crisis 0 cit. no story The newly independent Congo collapses into secession, UN intervention, and Cold War proxy struggle, with Prime Minister Lumumba murdered. Mobutu's 1965 coup ends the crisis and begins three decades of dictatorship. politics / war ●●●

13 November 1960 to 29 December 1996 Guatemalan Civil War 0 cit. no story Leftist guerrillas fight US-backed military governments for 36 years. State violence, including genocidal campaigns against Maya communities, accounts for most of the roughly 200,000 dead. politics / war ●●●

13 February 1960 Gerboise Bleue 0 cit. France detonates its first atomic bomb in the Algerian Sahara, becoming the fourth nuclear power. The test fulfills de Gaulle's demand for an independent deterrent outside American control. politics / war ●●●●

c. July 1960 Sino-Soviet split 0 cit. The alliance between the Soviet Union and China breaks down over ideology and leadership of the communist world, and Khrushchev withdraws Soviet advisers from China in 1960. Open polemics follow and the two powers become rivals. politics ●●●●

1960 The laser 1 cit. Theodore Maiman built the first working laser, producing a narrow, intense beam of coherent light. Lasers now drive fiber optics, surgery, manufacturing, scanners and data storage. science / technology ●●●●

1960 The contraceptive pill 0 cit. Regulators approved the first oral contraceptive pill for birth control. Reliable contraception gave women greater control over childbearing and reshaped families and society. science ●●●●

c. 1960 Modern decline of Freemasonry 0 cit. American Freemasonry peaked at about four million members in the late 1950s and has fallen steadily since, a pattern echoed in Britain and Europe. Aging membership and falling interest in fraternal groups drove the drop. religion / society ●●●

26 September 1960 The Kennedy-Nixon televised debate 0 cit. The first televised presidential debate reached a large national audience and highlighted the growing power of television in politics. It marked a shift toward the visual image in American campaigns. culture / politics ●●●

3 February 1960 The Wind of Change Speech 0 cit. Prime Minister Harold Macmillan told South Africa's parliament that a wind of change was blowing through Africa. The speech signaled Britain's acceptance that decolonization could not be stopped. politics ●●●●

1 October 1960 Nigerian Independence 0 cit. Britain's most populous African colony became independent. Its transition was part of a rapid wave that ended British rule across most of Africa within a few years. politics ●●●

1 February 1960 Greensboro sit-ins spark a wave of protest 0 cit. Four Black college students sat at a segregated lunch counter and refused to leave, launching sit-ins across the South. The nonviolent tactic drew thousands of young people into the civil rights movement. politics / society ●●

21 March 1960 Sharpeville massacre kills anti-pass protesters 0 cit. South African police opened fire on a peaceful crowd protesting the pass laws, killing 69 people, many shot in the back. The massacre drew global condemnation and pushed the liberation movement toward armed struggle. politics / society ●●●

c. 1960 The City of London and Wall Street form a linked financial axis 0 cit. Deep ties between London's financial district and New York markets, including the growth of the eurodollar market from the late 1950s, kept Anglo-American finance closely joined. These are documented commercial arrangements, not a secret cabal. economy / politics ●

21 March 1960 Sharpeville massacre 0 cit. South African police shot dead sixty-nine unarmed protesters demonstrating against the pass laws. The massacre drew world condemnation and pushed the anti-apartheid movement toward armed struggle. politics / society ●●●

3 February 1960 Macmillan's Wind of Change speech 0 cit. British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan told South Africa's parliament that a wind of change was blowing through Africa as nationalism grew. The speech signalled that Britain accepted the coming end of its African empire. politics ●●

1960 The Year of Africa 2 cit. Seventeen African colonies gained independence in a single year, most of them French. It marked the high point of the post-war wave of decolonization on the continent. politics ●●●●

30 June 1960 to 1961 Congo independence and the Lumumba crisis 0 cit. Belgium granted the Congo independence with little preparation, and the country fell into crisis within days. Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba was overthrown and murdered in early 1961 with Belgian and Western involvement. politics / war ●●●

1 October 1960 Nigeria becomes independent 0 cit. Nigeria gained independence from Britain as Africa's most populous nation. Its federation joined together very different regions inside borders inherited from colonial rule. politics ●●

24 September 1960 Creation of the International Development Association 0 cit. The IDA was established to lend to the poorest countries on concessional terms, with low or no interest and long repayment periods. It became the World Bank's main channel for aid to low-income nations. economy / politics ●●●●

13 November 1960 to 1996 Guatemalan civil war begins after the coup 0 cit. The 1954 coup helped trigger a civil war in which US-backed security forces killed an estimated 200,000 people, most of them Maya civilians. A UN truth commission later found acts of genocide by the state. society / war ●●●●